The securing of any Civilization is secured through food security. Indeed, it is in many ways, the bedrock of it. Unlike Aavesana and Vanijya, which are often closely associated with specific communities, farming is an occupation that has traditionally been open to three varnas, and some would even say, all four. Our next article on traditional Indic treatises is on the ancient Indian art of Agriculture, better known as Krshi Sastra.
Introduction
Agriculture is the circulatory system of any society. It nourishes the body of the nation, gives employment to the masses, and ensures self-sufficiency not just for self or family, but even for the State. Ancient India was famous for its fertile land and myriad crops, but it was the ploughing farmer who made possible the happiness of rich and poor alike.
If Indic Civilization is a spiritual civilization, then Krshi Saastra, the Scripture of Farming, is the gift of the Creator, Brahmadev, to mankind itself. This sacred knowledge not only instructs the agriculturalist on how to fill his family’s belly, but also on how society itself can do so, in harmony with the natural rhythm of the world and cosmic order of the universe.
There are two main texts that serve as fulcrum for Krshi Saastra. Krshi Paraasara is indubitably the more famous work. And yet, it is the Kaashyapeeya-Krshi-Sookthi that is the more complete one. If the former focuses primarily on the rains and vicissitudes of vittles and their harvesting, the latter provides a nation-wide approach to ensuring food security for individual and nation. Indeed, Maharishi Kashyapa exhorts the Kings of all eras to emphatically take up the cause of the farmer and provide the pivotal aspects and infrastructure to safeguard the food supply.
But before studying the intricacies of the Saastra of farming, it is imperative to understand the philosophy behind it. What made (and still makes) the Indic farmer tick? After all these ages and new technologies and procedures, what is the rhythmic heartbeat of the ploughman that remains unchanged, irrespective of how many millenniums pass?
Terminology
- Krshi/Vyavasaaya—Agriculture/Farming
- Krshathi—To Plough
- Krshivalah/Krshaka—Agriculturalist/Farmer
- Pundaraka—Pastoralist/Herdsman
- Annakoshtaka—Granary
- Vaapi/Koopa—Well
- Saarasa—Pond
- Kaasaaram—Water tank/Reservoir
- Karsu—Furrow/Trench
- Kulyaa—Canal
- Koolyaa vyavastha—Irrigaton/Canal system
- Bhaanda—Barrel
- Bhaara—Weight
- Nirmaani—Mill
- Ghatiyanthra—Water wheel/Persian wheel
- Hala/ Halabhrthi—Plough/Ploughing
- Isaa—Plough pole
- Addachalla— Pin of Bull Yoke
- Medhi—Pillar that bull is tied to when threshing
- Pacchanika/Praajana—Bull Goad
- Phaalaka—Ploughshare
- Yuga—Yoke
- Dhaathra—Sickle/Scythe
- Dhaalikthra—Crusher
- Khaanithra—Spade
- Ksheera/Dugdham—Milk
- Navaneetham—Butter
- Thakram—Buttermilk
- Ghrtham—Ghee
- Dhadhi—Curd
- Paaka—Cooking
- Ruchi—Taste/Flavor
- Ruchikaram— Tasty
- Rasa—Flavour/Juice
- Godhoomah—Wheat
- Supishtam—Wheat Flour
- Dhaanyam— Unhusked rice/Paddy rice/Grain
- Thandulah—Husked rice
- Prthukam—Flattened rice
- Maasharah—Rice gruel
- Soopa—Soup/pulse/sauce
- Vreehi/Thandula/Annam/Bhatka—Rice
- Yava—Barley
- Langoora—Millet
- Kodrava—Kodo millet
- Maashah—Black gram
- Kapila maashaah—Ordinary beans
- Raaja maashaah—White beans
- Mudgah—Green gram
- Kuluttha—Horse gram
- Chanakah—Chick pea
- Aadhaka — Pigeon pea/Measure of Grain/Space
- Aadhakee—Red gram
- Sharkaraam (“aapke muh mein ghee shakkar!“)—Sugar
- Aksheeba—Sea salt
- Akshaaralavana—Natural salt
- Lavanam—Salt
- Mareecha—Black Pepper
- Pippali—Long Pepper
- Haridhra—Turmeric
- Aaradhrakam/Shunthi—Ginger
- Lashuna/Rasona—Garlic
- Jeerakam—Cumin
- Gudah—Jaggery
- Lavangah—Cloves
- Elaa—Cardamom
- Sarsapa/Raajika—Mustard
- Dhanyaakam—Coriander
- Thula/Kaarpaasa—Cotton
- Thila—Sesame
- Thailam—Oil
- Erranda—Castor
- Phalam — Fruit
- Aamraphalam/Aamram—Mango
- Panasam—Jackfruit
- Naarikelam—Coconut
- Dhraaksha—Grape
- Jambeeram—Lemon fruit
- Aathaphalam—Apple
- Jambu—Rose apple/Java plum
- Kapittham—Wood apple
- Kadhalee—Plantain
- Badharam—Jujube fruit
- Aamlakam/Thinthideekam—Tamarind
- Udhambara—Cluster fig
- Ikshu—Sugarcane
- Nalada—Cinnamon,
- Surana—Elephant yam
- Naagavalli/Thaamboola—Betel leaf
- Patola —Pointed gourd
- Shaaka—Vegetables
- Vrnthaaka—Brinjal/Eggplant
- Rudhira vrnthaakah—Tomato
- Kalaaya—Peas
- Shigru—Drumstick
- Palanduh/Kandharpa—Onion
- Vrksha—Tree
- Vata—Banyan
- Patolika/Karkatee—Cucumber
- Kushmanda—Ash Gourd
- Chaladala—Peepal
- Paribhadhraka—Coral Tree
- Palasha—Flame of the Forest
- Madhuka—Mahua
- Neepa—Yellow Tea
- Vamsha/Kichaka—Thorny bamboo
- Kasha—Thatch Grass
Philosophy
As with all things in Indic Civilization, even Agriculture is deemed sacred. Thus, recognition of mankind’s place in the cosmic order, the devas are beseeched to bless the farmer with rains. Indra, as King of the Devas, is the lord of rains. Brahmanas conduct Yajnas to Devas who in turn bless humanity with rains for crops. A small portion of crops are again used for Yajnas.
The Devas themselves are distinct from the Trimurthi, or Divine Triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Acharyas encourage the term celestial rather than God as the correct equivalent, as Devas are part of the Divine Bureaucracy of Paramatma. Either ways, these philosophical underpinnings are essential to understanding the nature of the farming process of India.
However, farmers can also worship directly, as seen in Krshi Paraasara. Dated to the 1st Century CE [2,v], but in all likelihood, much, much older, this work is a hallmark of the Bhaaratheeya Hala. However, if Krshi Paraasara is known to centre attention upon rainclouds, the Kaashyapeeya-krshi-sukthi (dated to 1000 CE or earlier) centres its attention upon irrigation. Canal systems, and the role of the King/Government, in ensuring access to water for crops and drinking, is directly treated in this treatise. However, this will be delved into later.
At present, the philosophy behind krshi demonstrates man’s intricate place in nature. Rather than agriculture being about man vs nature, it is about man being at harmony with it, and taking only what is necessary. Thus, while non-vegetarianism was permitted, vegetarianism was praised.
Vegetarianism is a frequent flower in the garland of Dharma. Not only those following the Sattvic way of life, but also The Buddha favoured ahimsa to animals, though he permitted non-veg in cases of unintentional slaughter. [8,55] Jainism of course stands as the most dedicated to the concept of non-injury to animals, and many Sikhs observe vegetarianism (except in times of war). Interestingly, Jain Teerthankara Rishabhadeva is said to have given the tripartite principles of Asi (Sword), Masi (Pen), and Krshi (Agriculture). These commonalities are natural to Indic Civilization.
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism crystallized out of a Hindu matrix. In terms of food practices they have naturally many features in common with the Hindu ethos. [8,70]
Despite the large contingents of vegetarians (sakaharis) and non-vegetarians (maamsahaaris), one dietary thread is common to them: the sanctity of the cow.
“Protection of cows has been stated to be a religious duty of the guardians of the land. Protecting them from thieves and villains and donating them has been held as yielding to great success especially in agricultural work.” [2, 91]
Contrary to murkhapanditas peddling ‘beef in vedas’ theories, the cow was—and is—aghnyaa, that which should not be killed.
the Rigveda has a whole hymn to nutrition (peelu) in which only vegetable foods are listed, and carries two verses in praise of ‘the cow, Aditi, the sinless’. The word gau is used for the cow, and the term aghnyaa (‘not to be eaten, inviolable’) is employed no less than sixteen times, in contrast to three references to the bull, using the masculine form aghnya [8, 55]
These go-bhakshaks advocating a go-mamsa theory of Dharma are high on Ego and low on Sattva guna. This age old food restriction characterises our Dharmic way of life, yet nevertheless leaves a wide variety of not only other meats, but also a myriad of fruits, vegetables, grains, beverages, divine dishes, and savoury sweets.
One of the notable aspects of Krshi Saastra is that per Dharmasaastra, even Brahmanas who do not wish to beg or serve as priests, may choose the third option of serving as agriculturists. In fact, Maharishi Kashyapa states that Krshi Saastra may be studied and taken up by all four varnas and mixed castes, and even avarnas permitted to sow and reap their own crops. Thus, Krshi Saastra exists for the benefit of all mankind, despite its custodianship under the traditional scholars of Hindu Society.
Community
“Those of the villagers who are engaged in agricultural pursuits should be free from hypocrisy, jealousy, etc.,seeking mutual interests”. [2, 83]
Strange as it may seem to the Modern Selfish Hindu, working together with absence of jealousy was once a core value of Dharmic Society. Indeed, there was no need for a specific Dharma of Collaboration, because societal collaboration was itself part of Dharma. Perhaps no sector more obviously requires this than agriculture.
The fundamentally communal nature of agriculture is seen in the very sloka of the Kaashyapeeya-krshi-sookthi. It states the following:
“A dutiful Kshatriya king, who bears the burden of security of [his] subjects, should punish those who deserve punishment, establish truth and virtue in all possible ways, and nourish the subjects, especially those who are intent on [their respective] class and order [in social life] and also others in due course in a discreet manner, with a view to please the gods.” [2, 72]
As such, food supply, via Yogakshema, is an essential aspect of Raajadharma. The Raaja is expected to be intrinsically involved in Public Works, which sustain agriculture. His administration will also oversee collection and storage of communal grains in the Royal Granaries, which are to be opened during times of distress and malnutrition. Concern and consideration for his ryots was right behaviour for righteous Raajas.
Per the advice of Maharishi Kashyapa, land is to be surveyed and classified as arable and non-arable, as well as mountain, oceanside, riverine, forest, and fertile regions. [2, 3] It was actually considered a royal duty to do so: “Since the earth is of a multifarious character by nature, a king consecrated to the fostering of all beings should initiate scrutiny of fields with marks of prosperity for crop production.” [2, 75]
Four types of land purposes are then explicitly specified: 1) Agriculture, 2) Gardens, 3) Forest, & 4) Water Reservoirs. [2, 76] It is advised the land be devoid of stones, bones, anthills, thorns, etc. It should not be plagued by winds or fire, and should have abundant trees and water. The centrality of land is seen in the following quote:
“A good quality land yields good results for everyone, confers good health on the entire family, and causes growth of money, cattle, and grain.” [2, 75]
The soil itself is classified according to colour (White, Red, Gold, Black), as well as taste (saline and non), along with turbidity and fluidity. It should have the fragrance of jasmine and other such flowers. In particular,
“It should consist of pliant clay, [very] unctuous, with reddish and black hue, without chaff [and] glass, full of essence and glossy with water.” [2, 74]
Water is the essential ingredient of life. While most of India is traditionally rain or river-fed, the proliferation of arid regions has made infrastructure crucial to crop production. Construction of Water reservoirs is emphasised by Kashyapa and treated in detail. He writes that “The king should plan villages, forts, and towns with the help of expert engineers well-versed in science and conversant with the standards…An expert should in this way build a deep reservoir of water equipped with a latch to ward off floods when it is inundated.” [2, 76-77]
An intricate canal-system is specified, replete with reservoirs, trenches, stepwells, and even Water wheels (i.e. Persian wheels) which are called Ghatiyanthra. Showing consideration to all life, Maharishi advised one reservoir for the village/municipality, and one for animals. [2, 77] “An intelligent farmer should plan [his] farming wisely, taking into consideration the rise of clouds [in the sky], drizzle of water, deep reservoir of water and abundance of canal water, and also the type of land.” [2, 91]
Rice was divided into 3 types: shali, kalama, and shastika. Kalama is white, thick, and sappy. Shastika is the most bland of the three. Shali is the most diverse with 26 varieties. Contrary to today, where we are acclimated to merely white basmati or jasmine, black and red rice were commonly consumed & exhorted. These consolidated varieties are as follows:
Shveta shali (white rice), raktha shali (red rice), sthoola shali (thick rice), deergha shali (long rice), white & sweet kalama, red kalama, thick kalama, a long kalama, sambaka/hema (golden) rice, kapisha (brown) rice, raktha sambaka (red sambaka), krishna sambaka (black rice—very tasty), shuka vreehi (broad rice), sthoolkaya vreehi, ghana vreehi (solid and weighty), palasa vreehi (unctuous/sappy), svada vreehi (sweet rice), phala vreehi, draksha vreehi (vine rice), wild rice (black and white), barley rice, sammara vreehi, kala vreehi (sweet nourishing), sita vreehi (white rice), peethavarna vreehi (yellow rice), etc. The last variety is considered particularly good for digestion.
“Chanaka (chickpea) and adhaka (pigeonpea) grow on a small quantity of water. Nobody has stated any provision of water canals, etc. on this .” [2, 92]
Despite the litany of low-water crops, irrigation was foundational to securing reliable agriculture. “Irrigation works, often of enormous size, were undertaken by beneficent kings as a religious and social duty. The most famous of these reservoirs was that of Girnar, the history of which has come down to us, thanks to two inscriptions on the site…Probably the largest achievement of Indian irrigation until recent years was the lake at Bhojpur, near Bhopal, built in the middle of the 11th century by Bhoja Paramara, the king of Dhara. This too has vanished; the embankment was breached by the Muslims in the 15th century, and has never been restored; but it covered no less than 250 square miles. In the extreme north of India we read of Suyya, a great engineer in the service of king Avanti-varman of Kashmir (9th century), who “made the streams of Indus and Jhelam flow according to his will.” [6, 193]
But engineering and irrigation achievements were not restricted to the Indian core alone. Other constituents of Indic civilization had their own achievements.
“Most of the larger irrigation works of Hindu India have now vanished, but in Ceylon ancient reservoirs of enormous size still exist (pl. IIIa), though the canal systems which they served have largely disappeared, and are only now being repaired.” [6, 193]
Farming Process
“People should plan[t] their food by taking into account season, region, tradition, and custom” [2, 129]
The farming process is seemingly simple yet at the same time cumbersome and even intricate. While animal husbandry and the accompanying care are obvious enough, the carefully constituted science of crops from harvesting to crop rotation is one that is not for the neophyte. In fact, before leaping into this noble occupation, it is imperative that would-be agriculturalists study not only the saastric theory here, but learn from those actual farmers who have actually practiced.
“Kashyapa has thus strongly suggested a very major role for the ruler (governments today!) in fully supporting various agricultural activities. He emphasized that happiness all around can be felt only if there was food security.” [2, 132]
From the aristocratic gentleman-farmer to tenant sharecropper to everything in between, a plethora of professional titles and roles are associated with this Deva-given form of gainful employment. While rain-heavy regions like Assam and Bengal are seamlessly linked with observation of clouds, drier regions like Rajasthan and Kachchh require infrastructure. Irrespective, a general set of steps characterises successful farming. The basic process is as follows:
- Cultivation should be in water-supplied land
- Seeds should be collected and stored
- Fields should be ploughed through bullocks, starting in northeast
- Clusters of previous crops/weeds should be plucked
- Seeds should be planted and then lined with cow/goat manure
- After sowing seeds, fields should be irrigated or be prepared to receive rains
- Outlet should be created for runoff from watering sprouts
- Harvest and distribute as community once crop is ready
Land and Climate
“The distinction between garden land, including flower-gardens and orchards, in the neighbourhood of capital cities, land under wet cultivation and that under dry cultivation, and forest land, was carefully maintained for taxation and other purposes, wet lands being further divided into several grades according to their natural fertility. Besides cultivating food grains and pulses on both wet and dry land, intensive flower and vegetable growing and the raising of commercial crops like cotton and sugar-cane were also widely practiced.” [9, 297]
A climatologically delightful aspect of the Krshi Paraasara, is its classification of clouds. It stresses the necessity of rains to achieving a successful harvest. Being able to read them was considered part-and-parcel of preparing a parcel of agricultural land. Varieties of clouds described include Aavartha, Drona, Pushkara, and Samvartha.
Preparation of the land itself is done by first cleaning out the field by tossing lumps of clay, stone, and wood. Compost and cow-dung (and other animal dung) should be spread to increase the fertility of the soil.
Finally, there is the Hala-prasaarana, or Ceremony of Ploughing Commencement. The Raaja himself would often take up the the honourary role at such a public ceremony, in order to inaugurate the growing season and to encourage his subjects.
Seeds
Seeds are the sine qua non of farming. Without seeds, there is no crop, there is no harvest, there is no greed on which to sup. Seed security leads to food security. Seed storage practices are stipulated in both the Krshi Paraasara and Kashyapeeya-krshi-sookthi.
Pivotal to the process is the protection and distribution of seeds. Contrary to today’s privatised, proprietary GMO seeds, were the community publicly available seeds of yesteryear:
“It has been prescribed that alternatively the kings should [arrange] the preservation and distribute the seeds in due time. The collection of seeds, which is a great credit is [in fact[ the first valuable reward of agriculture…” [2, 94]
Kashyapa goes on to say that “It gives satisfaction to men as well as gods, and is fit to be gifted away. Therefore, farmers should better preserve the seeds expediently.” [2, 94]
The process of Seed Preservation is a s follows. First and foremost, the seeds (beeja) must be dried in the sun. Then they must be preserved in heaps of husk. The can also be placed in water-tight/locked bowls. They should be kept away from animals, such as rabbits, cats, and rats. Rain and wind are also detrimental to seed preservation. [2, 95]
Weeding
The importance of weeding is time and again underscored by both Paraashara and Kashyapa. Both the Maharishis assert this as essential practice to maintain the health of the field and its fitness for farming.
Ploughing
From Prthu to Balaraama, Raajas and Raajaputras were the Prthivi-vallabha ploughmen. They would ceremonially plough the Earth as encouragement to farmers who had a difficult task ahead of them. The land would often be ploughed twice in preparation for planting. Draft-animals were key to cutting into hardened land, as well as tough metals.
“Iron ploughshares were certainly known, however, for they are are mentioned in literature. The basic livestock of the peasant was cattle, used for ploughing, transport and food. Villages employed a communal cowherd, who drove the cattle, branded with their owners marks, to the waste beyond the ploughed fields every morning , and returned with them at dusk.” [6, 194]
Planting & Sowing
“Ancient India knew the use of manure, and the Arthasastra lays down several rules for the management of the king’s farms which in-dicate a well-developed agricultural technique.” [6, 194]
Ploughing of fields, sowing of seeds, and reaping of crops was typically done by hired agricultural labour or servants. They would line the fields with manure to improve the fertility of the planted areas. Cow urine was an effective natural pest-repellent. Neem was another. Scarecrows were yet another means of driving away larger pests, such as birds, and other animals. [2, 99]
Planting itself was often not done directly into the deep trenches ploughed by the ploughman, but on the side. The seeds were then patted down with additional earth and watered.
Watering/Rain/Irrigation
Watering crops is the make-or-break stage of the farming process. Water is the essential ingredient of life. When done by the farmer, it should be at the root of the crops.
The Krshi Paraasara emphasises rainfall. Kautilya seconds this in his Arthasaastra. He wrote that “a good rainy season is one when on third of the annual rainfall oc-curs at the beginning (Sarava – July/August) and at the end of the season (Kartika – October/November) and two-thirds in the middle (Praushtapada – August/September and Asvayuja – September/Oc-tober).” [3, 228]
A notable point is that “He also distinguishes between wet regions (Odisha) and dry regions (Maharashtra). “In regions where cultivation is dependent solely on the rain, land is classified as suitable for dry crops if the rainfall is about sixteen dronas [about 25 inches] a year and for wet crops if the rain fall is one and a half times that [about 37 1/2 inches a year].” [3, 228]
In contrast, the Kaashyapeeya-krshi-sukthi emphasises irrigation. “[A canal] unprotected and destitute of water is defective yielding nothing. Hence all kings should take care of canals in their best possible manner….’Even more than the ponds, lakes, wells, etc, protection of canals should be treated by them as their dharma’ said the sages who know the truth.” [2, 80]
Harvesting
When grains turn gold, then they are typically ready for harvest. Maharishi Kashyapa says that while theory is good, nothing replaces direct experience, especially when working on a farm. In other words, pareeksha anya yogyatha anya. Songs of the harvest such as oodupu paatalu in the Andhra desa, coloured and characterised the experience. [9, 367]
Often times, the entire village with harvest together. Reaping the grains sown over the past year, the entire community would look forward to the ensuing festival. “The vast majority of the population of the population lived in villages and agriculture was their main occupation. Great prestige was attached to ownership of land, and everyone, whatever his occupation, aimed at having a small plot he could call his own. The village was thus primarily a settlement of peasants, and its assembly an association of landlords. A periodical redistribution of the arable land of a village among its inhabitants prevailed in many parts of the country till comparatively recent times.” [9, 297]
Farming communities did not consist exclusively of propertied farmers. “Besides the landowners, great and small, there was a fairly large class of landless labourers…who assisted in the operation and shared the proceeds of agriculture; some of them were in a condition of serfdom, and all of them had less to do with the management of local affairs than the landowners. The artisans of the villages had shares from the common land of the village, which were of the nature of retainers or inducements to them to stay in the village, ready to take up work as it came to them.” [9, 297]
While the notion of generational untouchability is tragic and anathema, it is nevertheless, illustrative that many so-called untouchables had shares in common land and lived an otherwise free (albeit discriminated) existence.
“There was also a staff of menial servants from the outcastes who were likewise rewarded by shares in the common land. Day labour was usually paid for in grain, and even the small peasant was ready to hire himself out in his spare time.” [9, 297]
Though land ownership was ideal, as the later reforms of Banda Bahadur Singh demonstrated, tenant farming was widespread. As with any society, in times of justice, the terms were fair, and when the reverse, it was vice versa.
“Tenancy cultivation was quite common, especially on lands belonging to temples and other corporate institutions, the terms of the tenancy being fixed either by the terms of the original endowment or by separation negotiations in each case. Very often such tenants had rights which made them more or less part-owners of the land they cultivated.” [9, 297]
Thus, harvesting was a labour-intensive process, driven by rudimentary implements, such as sickles and scythes, but one in which all of society could participate. Based upon what was sown inside and outside the soil, a bitter or sweet harvest could be reaped.
“For helping such weaker sections, the rulers should themselves start farming activity in those places under their governance, by establishing excellent fields of both the types [wet and dry] under the jurisdiction of different circles, appointing their own workers as also those from the subjects for farming purpose, in due course and as per the demand of the season…Unemployed people from mixed castes and Sudras should be particularly employed for the farm-work at those respective places to cultivate different varieties of cereals, etc.” [2, 111]
Crops
“The staple corn crops of ancient India were, as they are today, wheat and barley in the cool north and elsewhere as winter crops, rice in the irrigated plains, and millet in the dryer lands, such as parts of the Deccan Plateau, where rice would not grow. ” [6, 193]
On the standard plots of land, eggplant, nutmeg, pepper, and such were ideal. Cucumber grows best on straw props which stimulated the growth of creeping plants. Vegetables in general were best suited to the wetlands. On high ground, ash gourd, cardamom, cinnamon and betel grew best. Plantain, sugarcane, and areca flourished in watery ground and in groves. Narikela (coconut) trees were also praised for their value. Speaking of Indian coconut country,
“South India, especially Kerala (Malabar), grew many spices, particularly pepper, cardamom, ginger and cinnamon, which were carried all over India and exported to Europe. The Himalayan foothills pro-duced the precious saffron. Cotton was at all times the staple textile crop.” [6, 193]
Wheat, pulses, and sugarcane were preferred for the autumn planting. “In the coastal areas were grown the palmyra and talipot palms, which provided India’s chief writing material, and also the alcoholic drinks now known as toddy and arrack.” [6, 194]
Numerous plants and crops are mentioned in the Raamayana and Mahabhaaratha. Kautilya writes that sugarcane is the worst of crops. This is tragic as it is especially overused in a dry region like Maharashtra today. Sali rice is described as the best, along with vreehi rice, Kodrava, and sesame. In the middle of the season, mudga, masha, and saibya beans are better. At the end of the season, saffron, pulses, wheat, barley, and mustard are ideal. [3, 230]
“The farmer should collect on the threshing floor, godhuma (wheat), tila (sesame), masha (Black gram), adhaka (pigeonpea), sarshapa (mustard), kira, mudga (mung bean), and such other crop after cleaning them thoroughly, of kshudragrama [grama, short for gramakanda, meaning a kind of bulbous plant“. [2, 104] They should then be prepared through peshana (pounding), chamana (winnowing), and husking. They can be dried in the sun, and then distributed or stored as needed.
Pippali (long pepper) was medicinal and life promoting. But this and many other forms of produce flourished best when the sovereign was actively involved in overseeing the welfare of the citizenry. “Therefore, sages have stated in the past that everywhere in the country, rulers of the land have contributed their best aid in agricultural enterprises. Without the royal support, agriculture on this earth, be it on the national level or in cities and villages, cannot be a full success.” [2, 111]
Livestock
“Cattle rearing was the second most importan[t] economic activity {1.4.1}. Cows and she-buffaloes were reared for milk and the bulls and he-buffaloes were used as draught animals. Other useful domesti-cated animals mentioned in the text are: sheep, goats, horses, don-keys, camels and pigs” [3, 82]
Grazing was an accompanying aspect of animal husbandry. Village headmen were responsible for overseeing damage prevention in the common pastures of a community. Animal welfare was also important, and veterinarian doctors plied their trade with state encouragement.
In the Raajadharma Anusaasana Parva, Bheeshma spoke of the duty of caring for cattle as a key part of Vaisya Dharma:
“ The Creator, having created the (domestic) animals, bestowed their care upon the Vaisya. Upon the Brahmana and the Kshatriya he conferred (the care of) all creatures. I shall tell thee what the Vaisya’s profession is and how he is to earn the means of his sustenance. If he keeps (for others) six kine, he may take the milk of one cow as his remuneration; and if he keeps (for others) a hundred kine, he may take a single pair as such fee. ” [11, 131]
If livestock was life-enriching, then cattle was the core. It is not for nothing this saying became popular: dhenoh paripaalana kshemaya bhavathi. Cow is the root of well-being. That is why it is a sacred animal and aghnyaa (cannot be killed), as its dung serves as fuel and fertiliser, its urine as pesticide, its strength for ploughing, and its milk as the basic ingredient for the Dharmic diet.
Speaking of diet, some discussion of animal diet is requisite. Stalks from aadaka, masha, godhooma, and chanaka, as well as from from rice and rice husks, were considered best for animal fodder. [2, 104]
Distribution
“Allotting one share to gods and king in order, and also one part to the Vedic scholar duly, donations are given or feeding for the servants is arranged in some places by farmers”. [2, 100]
Raajas famously claimed 1/6th of a farmer’s crop as royal tax to fund government. Optionally, one part would often be set aside to give as donations. Where land was donated for the maintenance of agrahaaras, the 1/6th would go directly to vedic brahmanas rather than king, & additional donation to scholars no longer required.
“The more energetic and conscientious kings did what they could to prevent and relieve famine. The Arthasastra even suggests that a king is justified in confiscating the hoarded wealth of his subjects to feed the hungry. The state granaries would be opened in emergency, and the charity of religious establishments and private persons was no doubt of some help.” [6, 192]
“Therefore for the sake of pleasing gods and for the protection of subjects, it is decidedly the king’s responsibility to see that agricultural work is not held up.” [2, 113]
This includes seeing to it that villagers have implements (i.e. spades and ploughs) required for farming.
Animal sustenance was also considered. Livestock were fed through fodder, which had to be set aside from crops. Stalk-bundles were ideal for cows, bulls, goats, buffalo, and even deer. [2, 101]
“Taking good care of the cattle, servants, and seeds; maintenance of canals, water-tanks, lakes, wells, etc.; keeping the implements like spade, sickle, etc. in good working condition; and guarding the threshing floor, fences and the fields through the year are the solemn duties of every farmer.” [2, 101-102]
Typically, two harvests transpired each year. The first was for wheat and the second for rice. The latter required a greater quantum of water to sustain and nurture it, which is what made the monsoon crucial to its success. Sowing commences in April-May (Vaisaakha) and the monsoon begins in June (Aashaada).
It is said that the king should ensure the transport and distribution of produce to the village, town, city, and capital. This was to be done through the assistance of vanijas.
“He should engage especially rich traders skilled in marketing for the purpose of purchase and sale.” [2, 112]
Measurements
If distribution was the duty of the sovereign, then measurement was the specialty of the merchant. Various measurements are discussed in tomes on Neethisaastra. However, a few constants were prominent:
1 aadhaka was said to be 256 fistfuls, which was equal to 32 handfuls. A drona was 4 aadhakas. 1 hastha was the length from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow (18 in). A nadika was 2 hasthas.
1 Pala (weight for gold) was 4 karshas which was 64 mashas. 1 masha =1 grain of black gram
Dining
“The word jalepika used by Kashyapa does indicate sweet looking like a net. Thus this may be the original jilebi.” [2, 144]
Interestingly the Art of Cooking , Paaka Saastra or Soopa Saastra, is mentioned in the Kaashyapeeya-krshi-sookthi. It describes how it became an expansive area of knowledge under Kings like Veerasena and Nala. Maharishi Garga also contributed to its growth. [2, 102]
The Art of Dining, much like the Art of Cooking, was very much raised to an high art in Ancient India. “The food cooked from holy substances obtained from cultivation should be daily and reverentially offered to Vasudeva, Lord Krishna, Vishnu, the Supreme Self, and then to the guests, and in [this] order…to one’s family.” [2, 119]
“Havya is the name of food which is fit [to be offered] to gods; this same has been ordained by rules as fit for guests and [other] citizens, and named bhojya, while kavya [that which is] offered to the manes and is said to be eaten along with one’s relatives only.” [2, 118]
There was a high standard of hygiene prescribed as well: “Food defiled by dogs, cocks, etc., food offered by the untrustworthy, and items spoiled by nails, etc, should also be rejected.” [2, 116]
Kashyapa writes that a complete meal was considered to be rice, then pulses as soup, vegetables as third, and finally ghee and milk as the fourth. A number of succulent delicacies are mentioned—some everyday such as curd rice (dhadhyannam), and others more special such as jalepika. The latter is better known to us today as Jalebi, indicating that it was not actually foreign but rather indigenous to India. Additionally, the Shadruchi are mentioned by name.
Culinary exhortations are also given even in the rustically oriented Krshi Paraasara.
Personalities
Maharishi Kashyapa
Rishabhadeva
Balaraama
Maharishi Paraashara
Varaahamihira
Surapaala
Important Texts
Raamaayana
Mahaabhaaratha
Kashyapeeya-Krshi-Sookthi of Kashyapa
Krshi Paraashara of Paraashara
Arthasaastra of Kautilya
Neethisaara of Kamandaki
Brhath Samhitha of Varaahamihira
Vrkshaayurveda of Surapaala
Conclusion
The purview of Krshi Saastra is properly Pan-India, perhaps even, Pan-Terra. As Maharishi Kashyapa wrote, desas in different directions of India are suitable for agriculture:
“In regions like Kasmira, Vanga, Nepala, Panchala, Kosala, Kuru, Virata, Avanti, Malava, Saka, Sindhu, Sauvira, Surasena, Chedi, Konkana, Andhra, etc farming should be undertaken during the rainy season”. [2, 91]
The mention of Kashmir twice in the Kaashyapeeya-krshi-sookthi indicates that proper credit to the primeval Maharishi Kashyapa is appropriate, and that it is indeed an ancient work. For the well-being of the ancient Indian, the great progenitor/Prajapathi of the age provided an erudite treatise on farming. Dairy too was taken care of with specific breeds of cattle with the specific purpose of nourishing not only their calves, but humanity as well.
Nevertheless, in the present era, man has taken for granted his food supply. Buttressed by daily delivery, cold storage, and exotic food imports, the word ‘famine’ itself has become foreign. And yet, it was not so long ago that malnutrition was massive (and even now lingers), and starvation an ever-present worry. “Let them eat cake” may be the socialite solution for the glib debutante (or middle class wannabe), but the reality is, the concept of cake itself may soon prove to be an antiquated luxury.
Food supply is the root of prosperity because it makes possible not only civilized life, but life itself. It is imperative that serious people begin seriously evaluating food security, which is increasingly becoming an issue even in the so-called ‘developed world’. GMO (genetically-modified organisms), chemical pesticides, inorganic fertiliser, A1 milk, and concomitant cancer rates have become recognised issues not just in India, but around the world. What mentally lazy, middle class milquetoasts take for granted is no longer just a lower class concern. Urban India has coasted on guaranteed food supplies whilst turning a blind eye to the agrarian crisis. “Why are Indian farmers suffering” has now become a question adapted by the rest of the world as “Why are [our] farmers suffering“. Accordingly, Corporate farming now accounts for an estimated 80% of American farming—is this a sustainable model for reservation-ridden, riot-prone, perennially under-employed India?
And yet, family farms are treated with disdain, and allegedly proven “modern models” are touted as silver bullets to the problem of farming productivity. But as modern methods have also proven, the most sustainably productive farms are family farms. In fact, the ever present problem of desertification has decimated Chinese agriculture, causing uber-modern Communist China to buy-up farmland around the world (even in Africa and America) to secure the food supply of their people. The dust problem around Beijing is directly correlated with the dustbowl of Oklahoma, and represents what happens when fertile farmland is ill-treated with chemical inputs and unsustainable GMO crops, which temporarily raise productivity while destroying soil later.
The lid has been blown off the Green and White Revolutions, and India and the rest of the world need to wake up to the farming issue of today which can very quickly become the food problem of tomorrow. No child (or elderly person) should die of hunger due to neglect or poverty. And yet, these two demographics are most vulnerable to the trials and tribulations of the theorised great tribulation, mechanically-dependent mankind is slated to undergo.
Zero-BS Natural Farming
Agricultural surplus is the root of wealth, and the foundation of urban civilization.
Rather than cash crops, a farmer’s first focus should be on sustenance. By prioritising the
feeding of his family, he then has his priorities straight. Surplus can be sold in the market.
Once this rhythm is in place, he can acquire more land for cash crops and the like. However, ensuring his family, and later, surrounding community have enough to eat should be the priority for any professional, profit-seeking krshaka.
Economically developed countries demand that India open up its markets to foreign agriculture. At the same time, these countries give billions of dollars in agricultural subsidies, causing artificial advantages later touted as “competitiveness“. Most of it goes to MNCs.
Real prosperity is rooted in food prosperity. And food prosperity originates in the possession of all four factors of production: land, labour, capital, and entrepreneurship. No matter how tempting videshi capital might be, not matter how good videshi entrepreneurship might be, land and labour must be local. And local capital formation occurs through pooling of resources. Whether this is done as a family or as a community. When individuals cooperate with each other, such as through local cooperatives, then economies of scale are assured, while preserving humanity and upholding dharma.
So rather than starting off with debt, let locals save money, and after a few years, pool capital. Focus should be on sustenance farming and food crops, rather than big business and cash crops. That is how sustainable agriculture and sustainable communities can be assured:
Save money to buy land, pool capital/infrastructure as a community, prioritise food farming, use native organic seeds, sell surplus, assist others in community during down times, save up money and fill granaries/godowns in good times.
Krshi Saastra at once represents the ancient agricultural heritage of India as well as its future hope. At a time when agriculturalists and the ryots of old are derided as “rustics”, perhaps the time has come to reevaluate and revisit the time-tested methods of our forebears. A spiritual civilization is one that is not only culturally and economically advanced, but also one that lives in harmony with the natural world of which it is a part.
Indeed, Yajna is an inextricable stage in the intricate cycle of cosmic order. Yajna to Devas gains rains, rains give good crops, and a portion of crops is again used for Yajna. This is the pattern of sustainable and spiritual agriculture that characterises Krshi Saastra. It is not about Man vs Nature, but about Man in Harmony with Nature.
References:
- Majumdar, Girija Prasad & Sures Chandra Banerji. Krsi-Parasara. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society. 1960
- Ayachit, S.M. KashyapiyaKrishiSukti. Secunderabad: Asia Agri-History Foundation. 2002
- Rangarajan, L.N. Edit, Kautilya. The Arthashastra. New Delhi. Penguin.1992
- Iyer, N.C. The Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira. Delhi: Satguru.1987
- Madhulika, Dr & Ed. Jayaram Yadav. Paka Darpana. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia. 2013
- Basham, A.L. The Wonder that was India. New Delhi: Rupa. 1999
- Sardesai, D.R. India: The Definitive History. Westview. Boulder, Colorado 2008
- Achaya, K.T. Indian Food: A Historical Companion. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1994
- Sastri, K.A.Nilakantha. A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford. 2015
- The Ramayana
- Ganguli, Kisari Mohan. The Mahabharata. Calcutta: Sacred Texts. 2003
