Among the sterling personalities in the History of Bharatavarsha, stands the brightest star of this portion of the Kali Yuga. In a land of strict rules of class and privilege, one son-of-the-soil stood head and shoulders above the blue bloods of the time.

Equal parts intelligent and brave, honourable and cunning, he was as skilled in statecraft as he was in tactics. To him, Rajadharma was not a matter of entitlement, but a sacred duty through which praja, desa, and dharma were protected—by all means necessary. His supple diplomacy was as luminous as his brilliant battle strategy. In him were vested all the qualities of a king, indeed, the characteristics of the ancient Kshatriyas of old.

It is a tremendous honour for ICP to recount the deeds of the Prathama Chhatrapathi,  Maharashtra shiromani, and founder of the Maratha Samrajya.

Our next article in our Continuing Series on Indic Personalities is the great Shivaji Raje.

Background

If there is a guru who is deserving of acclaim for the nurturing, inspiring, and educating of Shivaji Raje, it is every man’s first Guru. It is Jijabai Mata more than any other who must be honoured with moulding this Marathi mahanubhaava. She not only gave birth to him and raised him, but made him aware of how the political state of India had reached its lowest point. The land that had produced Sagara and Sri Rama, Gautamiputra and Vikramaditya, Rajendra Chola and Krishnadeva Raya, was now characterised by petty rajas and petulant princelings. Aided by the machinations of malevolent mantris, mlecchas had now not only overrun the borders of Bharat, but were the reigning hegemony. Maharashtra itself had been divided between the bickering Bahmanid successor states of Ahmednagar & Bijapur. The tragedy of the time was that various Maratha families were often on opposing sides.

Jijabai herself hailed from the Jadhavs of Berar, 1 of 96 clans in the Maratha community. But what was notable about hers was that it claimed descent from the Yadavas of Devagiri, who were once the paramount rulers of Maharashtra. She was only permitted to marry Shivaji’s father, Shahaji Bhonsle, after her father Lakhuji Jadhavrao was satisfied that he had become worthy of her. Eventually, Shahaji’s father Maloji was given the title ‘Raja’ of Poona for his services to Ahmednagar. [3, 186] Though the Bhonsles were notable watandars among other Maratha clans, Jijabai was a cut above the rest.

She became mother of his elder son Sambhaji (who would become namesake for Shivaji’s heir)—their other 4 children died in infancy. Shahaji also married Tukabai, who also bore him children, notably Vyankoji. [1, 14] He had established himself as ruler of Poona, and steadily rose in the ranks of the Hindu chieftains within the Ahmednagar kingdom. The tactics of Maharana Pratap had been noticed by Malik Ambar, and they were applied under him (aided by Marathas) against the Mughals.  However, Jijabai’s family were suspected on a whim by Nizam Shah, and were massacred. A disgusted Shahaji temporarily switched sides to the Mughals. He would later counterbalance Delhi with Bijapur to carve out a fiefdom for himself in Bangalore as well. And it is at this point that our story begins.

Plight of Hindus

The costs of foreign rule are well-known to Hindus, yet even in the present day, they have a unique ability to prioritise petty infighting. Perhaps it was punishment from Mahadev himself that resulted in not only countryman killing countryman, but even relative to kill relative for the benefit of foreign invaders. In one such episode, Shahaji’s brother killed Jijabai’s brother in battle. This is the cost of relishing rhetoric over collaborative action.

To demonstrate the fallen state of Hindus at the time, nothing was more outrageous than the slave trade of men and women being carried out by invaders from the Middle East, Central Asia, and Europe.

All this deeply disturbed Jijabai Mata, and the massacre of her family members on mere suspicion of an occupying invader, drove the point home. She resolved to raise a son with the culture and intelligence to overthrow foreign rule. She was a great devotee of Lord Shiva, and named her son Shivaji in his honour. [1, 10]

As a soldier-administrator, and undefeated general, Shahaji’s services were in demand. Though he seems to us a simple man, his conduct was in fact far more subtle than he is given credit. Long aware of the difficult situation of being caught between 3 powerful mleccha polities, he sought to counter-balance them. “That was the period when there were no permanent enemies or permanent friends. Political survival was name of the game.” [1,11] However, aurangzeb’s intolerant bigotry was already showing, and Shahaji left the mughals to return to Nizam Shah. Finding the situation in Ahmednagar intolerable, he sided with Adil Shah of Bijapur. In doing so, he actually bought not only time but goodwill that his infant son would later use to maximal measure.

Birth of a Hero

Due to the requirements of military campaigns, Shahaji realised he had to place his expectant wife Jijabai in safety. Poona came under Bijapuri control, so the family departed for fortified familial grounds. Shivneri was under the command of his relative Vijayarao. He left his uncle Vittoji, brother of his late father Maloji, to care for his pregnant wife and the child to arrive.  On February 17th, 1630, Shivaji Raje Bhonsle was born at Shivneri Fort. [1, 9] As Maharani Jaivanti would educate Kunwar Pratap Singh Sisodia, so would Jijabai educate Shivaji.

“The mother, Jijabai was the boy’s real teacher. She told him about India‘s rich past, culture, sagas of all the brave heroes of the mythological stories and religious tales. She also revealed how Hindu religion and culture was being desecrated by foreign invaders. It was impressed upon the boy that their future lay in his becoming a great warrior and he was born to liberate his land from the aliens and redeem Hinduism.” [1, 13]

Along with Jijabai, Shahaji’s adoptive father Vittoji and Shahaji himself were Shivaji’s main guides and inspiration.  In addition, in the absence of Shahaji, his right hand man Dada Kond Dev, used to manage Poona in his absence. [1,7] He was asked to watch over him and hire instructors for the boy. Soon a teacher was assigned and warriors were tasked with training young Shivaji in combat, archery, and military operations.

“Shiva was very aggressive. creative, intelligent and ambitious. Shahaji liked it. He took him on military expeditions to give him a feeling of the real war. Even in the battle grounds little Shiva didn’t fail to impress his father. Shahaji was now certain that his Shiva had all that was required to realise all their dreams.” [1, 14]

Shahaji had attempted to set up an independent state in 1632 CE, on pretext of puppet Nizam Shahi prince. Clearly he had his own aim for independence. His war with the Mughals continued till 1636, when he was forced to surrender his fiefs, and shifted South to join Bijapur. [2, 3] He soon conquered Bengaluru with his elder son Sambhaji (who had married the daughter of Shivneri’s Vishwasrao). [2, 1] Starting at age 7, Shivaji was taken there with the entire family and to rule it on behalf of Bijapur. It is said that when young Shivaji was taken to Adil Shah’s court as a child, he defiantly glared at the sultan. All were stunned, and through cautious etiquette, Shahaji was able to apologise for the breach of court decorum, and ushered out Shivaji. Though visibly shaken by this dangerous situation, Shahaji was internally satisfied at the boy’s bravery. [2, 4]

In another celebrated episode, the young lad would serve as gaurakshak. Invaders would frequently slaughter cows to humiliate Hindus, who considered Gaumata a sacred animal. He charged at once at a cow butcher, before being pulled away by his fearful servants.

To avoid further trouble, and at her behest, Jijabai and Shivaji  were quietly returned to the family estate at Poona, under the watchful eyes of elderly uncle Vittoji. Dadoji administered Poona under the command of Jijabai. Some revisionists have questioned the literacy of Shivaji, but actual history tells a different story. “During Shiva’s stay at Bangalore Shahaji had appointed a teacher to teach him letters. In Poona, Dadoji arranged for the continuation of that education besides warfare, use of weapons and public relations“. [1, 22] Per the custom of the time, Shivaji was married off to Saibai at age 10.

Soon, Shivaji & Saibai were sent to Bengaluru for two years. There he learned more about military operations and strategy. Shahaji’s second son got a taste for war, but was sent back to Poona to avoid irking the persianised Pardesi elite of Bijapur. Though native Marathas were given position out of necessity, it was clear foreigners were in charge. Before he left in 1642, however, the now adolescent aristocrat was married a second time (his other wives were Soyarabai, Putlibai, and Sakvarabai). Along with his growing family, retainers joined his growing entourage of warriors, strategists, and administrators. [1, 24]

Dadoji contented himself with administration, and sought to channel Shivaji into a more stable professional career. But the son of Jijabai & Shahaji had other plans. While his father governed Bengaluru,  “Jijabai and Vittoji made Shiva dream of a vast Hindu empire of future.” [1, 23]

In contrast to the bigoted aurangya, the noble Shivaji fought for the defence of dharma and warred on behalf of the sons-of-the soil. It was desi against videsi. A dynasty that claimed descent from timuri turks had no business in Bharatavarsha. Unlike the blabbermouths of Bharat Ganarajya, Shivaji had the sense to keep his plan for Hindavi Svarajya to himself. It was only after carefully considering his compatriots and comrades-in-arms that he finally informed them, and had them swear allegiance to Hindavi Svarajya.

A Nation Awakens

The first objective of Shivaji was to bring the surrounding 24 Maval regions under Poona’s influence. Each Maval was governed by a deshmukh—whose passtime was primarily plundering his neighbour. They would supplicate themselves before Bijapur to resolve their petty disputes, competing in sycophancy. Nevertheless, there were some who were antagonistic to Adil Shah, and who were receptive to the idea of Hindavi Svarajya. [1, 24]

Upset by the boorish behaviour of bigoted bijapuri occupiers, “The common Hindu was very angry at the attack on his religion and the culture…They now felt that Shivaji’s Swarajya could be the dream where they would be able to live with honour and without any fear.” [1, 26] The young Bhonsle began winning hearts, and bands of young men began seeking service under him. He began rebuilding destroyed temples to endear himself to the masses. Slowly but surely, a critical mass of Deshmukhs were won over. When traitor Deshmukhs ran to report him to Adil Shah, the indignant Shivaji severely punished them. The stage was set for a confrontation.

“One night Shivaji collected his faithful followers in a cave 50 miles off Poona. They were his hand picked promising young men. They took an oath to dedicate their lives to the creation of Svarajya and its defence. The young men were given arms and their training began earnestly. It was the first battalion of Swarajya Army.” [1, 27]

First Conquests

Dadoji had now aged, so management of Poona was directly taken over by Shivaji, under the watchful eyes of Jijabai & the aged Vittoji. A king in all but name, the stage was set for expansion. Like a sharp strategist, he set about studying the strategic landscape and assessed the situation—it was insurmountable. To the far North, the mughals had become paramount, having reduced the Deccan sultanates to tribute and direct vassalage.  These deccani states in turn did the same to the last vestiges of Vijayanagara’s nayaks in the extreme south. Europeans were nibbling at the coasts, establishing colonies and using profits from trade to build military power. Above all, forts were everywhere under the control of the enemy. Having memorised his Mahabharata, Shivaji no doubt recalled Bheeshma’s exhortation to fortification, and sought out the first citadel of Svarajya.

Shivaji and his retainers first raided Bijapur’s Torna fort, as it was neglected and undervalued. Furthermore, the occupying power itself valued the services of Shahaji as a commander, and deemed his younger, headstrong son an ancillary nuisance. Regardless, the guards of Torna surrendered without a fight, and Torna was theirs. Fortuitously, a treasure was found in the walls of the fort that changed the fortunes of Shivaji. [2,9]

Fort Morumbdev was the next target. It was only partially built, and neglected. Shivaji seized this as well, and using the proceeds of his treasure trove, completed the construction and renamed it Rajgad—his first capital. Next, he took Kanwarigad fort, defeating an antagonistic Deshmukh. It was a minor victory, but the implications were enormous. Shivaji had now put the country on notice. He was a force to contend with.

Bijapur’s fort at Sirval was the last straw. The Amin (tax collector) was tasked with bringing the fort’s revenue to the capital. Shivaji sent raiding parties to collect these funds. The pardesi potentate warned the Deshmukhs to keep away from Shivaji and to deliver taxes in a timely manner. Nevertheless, this time they stood by Shivaji. There was one exception. The Deshmukh of Javli had died, and his widow petitioned the rising Bhonsle to rule in favour of her son Yashvantrao, in the ensuing succession dispute. This made enemies of rival claimants who went directly to the court. Meanwhile, Dada Kond Dev passed away. Shivaji had reached a pivotal stage.

In addition to Shahaji’s possessions at Poona, Dadoji had also administered Kondana fort. Adil Shah now had a pretext to undercut this rising challenge, and place Miyan Rahim Khan as commander of the fort. The board was set for Shivaji’s first serious battle. He deputed his confidant Bapuji Mudgal to capture the fort before Khan could claim it. A surprise attack was launched and the fort was taken with minimal loss of life. Faced with this changed situation, Khan turned back and related what happened. [1,31]

What’s more, the Deccan states learned that they were being hemmed in by Hindus in the south as well.

“Shivaji’s brother Shambaji was also making trouble for the empire in the south. He was doing exactly what Shivaji was doing in the west. Shambaji had rallied the Hindu kings of Karnataka region and was planning to create a Hindu empire with Bangalore city as its nucleus.” [1, 32]

Courtiers of Adil Shah soon lost no time in further turning him against the Bhonsle family. Two armies were then sent. One to the south under Mustafa Khan (assisted by Baji Ghorpade) and another to the West, led by Fateh Khan and Matro Raj Gatge. Though Shahaji had been alerted of the motives of the southern army, he fell for the peace offer made by Mustafa. The actual plan was a surprise attack at night, after lulling the rebels under false pretence of peace. Shahaji was captured and taken by Baji Ghorpade to Bijapur, where he was imprisoned.

Simultaneously, Bengaluru fort was besieged. However, Sambhaji was able to beat it back. The brothers were nevertheless in a fix. [1, 33] Shivaji counterattacked at Subhan Mangal fort, and drove Balaji Haivatrao of Bijapur back in.

Recognising the net that was being weaved around him, Shivaji remained at his favoured Purandar fort, and ordered his commander Kawji to take the fort of Subhan Mangal. The assault began in earnest, despite the enemy’s superior numbers under Balaji Haivatrao. Soon Haivatrao was killed in battle, and by the next day, it was taken amidst cries of Har Har Mahadev and Jai Bhavani.

Battle of Purandar

Purandar was and would serve in the future as Shivaji’s stronghold. Fateh Khan besieged it, but his first column was driven back from the siege by the young Bhonsle via big boulders and stones stored at the top. The second wave was sent under Moose Khan. Shivaji choose this precise moment to sally his soldiers from the fort. Each picked his enemy to converge on. Godaji speared the burly Moose Khan, and fought single combat with him before finally cutting Moose in two. This was a morale boost for the Marathas, and Fateh Khan fled the field. The Bijapuri camp was raided, gifting funds and weapons galore. Shivaji had won his first major battle in 1659, through his own leadership. [1, 41]

The clever commander of the Marathas was well-aware of the political situation.  Ahmednagar had been swallowed up by the Mughals, and Golkonda brought to vassalage. Bijapur was a tributary, but was an apprehensive one, keenly aware of Delhi’s designs. As such, capitalising on his father’s relations with the Mughals, Shivaji sent them a cleverly-worded, tactful message requesting recognition of the Bhonsle’s possessions.  The mughal viceroy Murad confirmed them, and what’s more, agreed to pressure Adil Shah into releasing the elder Bhonsle, Shahaji, from prison. The bijapuri potentate fearfully agreed to to the mughal demand (sent by Shah Jahan at Delhi). So Adil Shah decided to pacify Shahaji and keep him in his service. In return, he asked for Kondana fort (taken and renamed Simhagad by Shivaji). [2, 52]

As compensation, Shahaji sent his two companions Kanhoji Jedhe and Dadoji Lohokare as retainers, with a letter saying they were worth 100 Kondanas. They were incisive planners, strategists, politicians, administrators, and warriors. They had the precise set of skills kshatra-dharma demands of loyal lieutenants to a rising ruler.

Svaraajya Vikaas

The Raja of Hindavi Svarajya decided to dedicate himself to Public Works while waiting. “He was already busy developing his Swarajya area by laying roads, planting trees, sinking wells, setting up administrations and recruiting young men to enlarge his army.” [1, 47] As time passed, the situation finally changed. Shahaji was sent south again to govern Karnataka. This would provide an opening for Shivaji to raid Bijapur again.

However, the situation was not as simple as it seemed. His lieutenant Mahadev Pant died. Though he had four sons, they proved to be quarrelsome duffers, and they tried to sell out Shivaji to the sultans. They were thrown into prison and released only on promise of loyalty to Svarajya. [1, 47] Following that, the ingrate Yashvantrao More decided to join hands with Bijapur to attack Shivaji. Despite the geography of Javli being favourable to More, Shivaji used guerrilla warfare to launch hit-and-run attacks to attrit the drohi army.

Finally, the traitor was forced to take refuge at Rairy. He was besieged there for 6 weeks, before surrendering to beg mercy. The ungrateful deshmukh of Jawli then began sending letters badmouthing Shivaji to bijapur with the aim of seeking revenge through the hands of an outsider (perennial bane of Hindus). The master of Purandar soon caught wind of the conspiracy. He struck quick and fast, executing Yashwantrao and his heirs, incorporating Jawli outright. Six forts were also captured soon after. Rairy was renamed Raigad, his capital from then on. [1, 49]

As the months became years, Shivaji began to prove not only a budding warlord but also a responsible householder. His wife Saibai had given birth to and was raising his son and future heir, Sambhaji. The political situation also became fortuitous. The mughal claimant aurangya was aiming to incorporate Bijapur. Mohd. Adil Shah had died, and begum Ulia janaba installed a maid’s son, while she ruled as regent. There was much grumbling at the court, which gave Shivaji breathing space. So he focused his attention on the unclaimed areas of the Konkan.

He began building up depth in this hinterland, and brought many forts under his flag. In a deft-move, he had his trusted comrade-in-arms Sonopant Dabeer sent to the mughal camp with a letter. Of all people, aurangzeb was requested to give territorial recognition to these areas as Bhonsle territory. Ever eager to weaken Bijapur, the bigoted princeling agreed in 1657, as he plotted to take the Delhi throne. Despite this, Shivaji was well-aware of the agenda of the future ruler of Agra.

Shivaji was then off to Ahmednagar to take the Junner possessions of the Mughals. With 500 picked troops, he stealthily took control of the region, since the mughal garrisons had become accustomed to peace here. In fact, for a long-time, there was confusion throughout the Dakshinapatha as to who had actually taken these forts.

The furious Aurangya soon plotted to destroy Shivaji, and told his subordinates:

“Invade Shivaji’s territory, lay waste the villages, slay people without pity and plunder them to the extreme. Shivaji’s possessions, Poona and Chakan, must be utterly ruined and not the least remissness shown in slaying and enslaving people”. [2, 18]

However, Shah Jahan soon became ill, and politics pulled aurangzeb back to Agra. A tentative peace was signed with Bijapur, and Poona passed to the Mughal empire. So Shivaji made nice with the mughals  to focus on Bijapur. He began nibbling away at Raibag and Adgal. The baron of Kudal sought his protection. He accepted the request provided Kudal join Hindavi Svarajya. He expanded into the Konkan and built coastal forts. There were now 60 forts fluttering with the saffron flag of Shivaji, and a navy. 

In recognition of his achievements, Govlekar Sawant present the famed double-edge sword Bhavani. A state-within-a-state had been formed right under Bijapur’s nose. The newly crowned Ali Adil Shah, under the guidance of Ulia Janaba, then pressed for action. Shahaji dissembled, claiming he no longer commanded authority over his sons. Afzal Khan was sent with a large army.

Though estimates vary regarding infantry (~40,000) and cavalry (~10,000), the artillery was formidable and the deciding factor in late medieval warfare.  400 small guns and 75 big guns were sent with Afzal. He targeted the shrine of Tuljadevi Bhavani, Kul Devi of the Bhonsles.  [1, 61] He also vandalised the Vithoba temple at Pandarpur. [3, 186] His aim was to provoke Shivaji into a confrontation. The iconoclastic fanatic destroyed the Hindu religious shrine. But Shivaji did not take the bait. Temples could be reconsecrated, but his people had to survive.

Kuldevi & Kul Avenged

Shivaji recognised the greater enemy strength, not just in numbers, but in equipment. Ever an astute strategist, he knew it would be foolhardy to engage in open battle, and resorted to ganimi kava. Despite being shadowed by the Maratha army, Bijapuri bigots did their work engaging in plunder and rapine, putting entire villages to flame. Shivaji still kept his cool. When his brother-in-law Nimbalkar was captured and threatened with religious conversion or death, Shivaji still kept his cool.

The wanton religious fanaticism of the mleccha Afzal began to upset Bijapur’s Hindu commanders. Though Nimbalkar (who had been loyal to Bijapur until then) was released, the damage had been done—and for the first time a few decades, Bijapur’s cohesion was frayed.

Shivaji became aware by now of how Afzal had treacherously killed his brother Sambhaji. Again pretending to make peace, Afzal literally stabbed the ruler of Bangalore in the back. Recognising the same would be done to him, Shivaji decided to strike first. He utilised his vast spy network to gain intelligence on Afzal’s movements. Realising the big guns of Bijapur would break battalions in open war, the cunning ruler of Raigad resorted to strategem. Despite news that his beloved wife Saibai had died, he kept his calm.

He invited Krishnaji Bhaskar to treat with him at Pratapgad (his most formidable fort, constructed from scratch). Playing on his hurt religious feelings, he asked Bhaskar to lull Afzal into complacency. After all, what was one bigoted commander to a bijapuri loyalist like Bhaskar. He agreed, and told Afzal to move from Wai to meet Shivaji at Pratapgad. The redoubtable fortress would serve as stage for a fox to be out-foxed.

After feigning fright, Shivaji asked Afzal to treat with him without artillery so that he could accord him a royal welcome. The arrogant Afzal agreed. He was greeted at a luxurious gazebo, on November 10th, 1659. Though the mleccha called himself an uncle to be embraced, as soon as he had Shivaji in his grasp, he reached for his knife. But the prescient prince of Poona foresaw this, and wore armour. The blade bounced off and Shivaji countered with his daggar and baghnakh (tiger claws). Afzal-vadh was achieved.

Battle of Pratapgad

The Marathas soon fell upon the rest of the army—taken unawares having expected hospitality. A taste of the tactics of Ghazni and Ghori were now given to the enemy. Shivaji’s soldiers sallied forth after hearing the signal. The Battle of Pratapgad was won before it was fought. The haul from the victory was 7 lakh rupees coin, 3 lakh rupees jewelry, 1200 camels, 400 horses, 65 elephants, and a number of guns. [1, 75]

Advantage was then pressed, and the remaining force at Wai was wiped out under Shivaji’s most trusted commander Netaji Palkar. The two columns then converged on Satara and Kolhapur. Finally the joint forces took Panhala fort, which had a well-stocked treasury and armoury. Godak, Gokak and Konkan soon followed. Finally Dabhol port itself was taken (along with an English captain as prisoner. Hindavi Svarajya now had international notoriety).

Second Wave

Despite smarting under this big blow, Bijapur sent a second wave. Command was given to Rustom-e-Zaman, son of Afzal. Other enemy commanders inlcuded Fateh Khan, Ghorpade, and Sarojerao, and they all soon converged on Panhalgarh. But Shivaji again gave them the slip. He set a trap for Rustom, and wiped the army out.

The Abysinnian Siddi Johar led a force of 20,000 horse and 40,000 foot to besiege Panhala, in 1660. [2, 32] The Mughals and even Qutb Shahs of Golkonda were alerted to the possibility of an independent Hindu kingdom, and sent contingents to assist Bijapur in its bigotry. Foreign occupiers in India had all united against Hind Swaraj’s native sons-of-the soil. Jackals, after all, only fight among themselves after unitedly winning the spoils…

Nevertheless, the dauntless Shivaji did not capitulate. Instead, he sought to play one against the other. He quickly handed over Panhalgad to Siddi Johar, knowing full well a Mughal army was sent to take it. Soon Bijapuri and Mughal forces were fighting each other! Having succeeded in setting the two states in opposition, Shivaji set off for his safe haven. His loyal lieutenant Baji Prabhu knew that Siddi’s sub-commander Masood was giving chase through pavan khind. So, the maratha offered to give his life by pretending to be in Shivaji’s palki (palaquin) to buy time. The ruse worked, and Shivaji reached safety on a swift horse, while mourning the passing of Baji.

Mughal Expeditions

Like Rana Pratap before him, Shivaji Raje would face tide-after-tide of mughal expeditions. Unlike the lion of Mewar, however, the panther of Poona faced not an incipient mughlai state, but a firmly entrenched pan-India power. In fact, historical records show that the Bijapur army was sent at the behest of Aurangya himself. Thus, trickery and deception were not simply a matter of prudent policy, but the order of the day. Bijapur would back-stab and in turn be back-stabbed. Golkonda the same, and Agra most of all. In the wake of such characters, a king must be a strategist and operate by his wits.

Shaista Khan

Aurangya had now secured the throne of Delhi. Infuriated by being outwitted by Shivaji again, he sent Shaista Khan to join the jehaadi effort to put down Hindavi Svarajya. However aurangzeb’s uncle Shaista saw that Bijapur was ripe for the picking, arguing that Shivaji had broken its back. He soon occupied Poona and Lal Mahal (which was the Bhonsle family palace). His soldiers soon fanned out for Shivaji.

Shivaji warned his sardars to be alert and escort people to safety. [2, 38] The redoubtable ruler of Raigad shifted operations to Vishalgad. Kartalab Khan was sent to the Konkan-Sahyadri to capture Shivaji.

“Meanwhile, Shivaji and his army stormed into the coastal ports ending up in Rajapur where European traders had large storage facilities. Shivaji got all godown[s] destroyed and took traders into his custody. He wanted to punish them because they were supplying cannons, guns and ammunition…Thus, all foreign forces had joined hands against the native resistance.” [1, 81]

The Marathi forces again resorted to guerrilla warfare. Shivaji then let a covert operation against Shaista Khan. After careful intelligence gathering through his spy network, Shivaji then struck at Shaista with 500 soldiers. The mughal commander was taken unawares, and his son and others were killed. He escaped, albeit, with fewer fingers.

Jaswant Singh

An enraged auranzeb then sent Jaswant Singh of Marwar, in 1661. Despite being a skilled general, he was unable succeed against the irregular warfare methods of the Marathas.

“The Alamgirnama sadly notes: ‘Not a single fort could be captured. The campaign against Shivaji ran into difficul-ties and languished.” [2, 43]

The three years of Shaista Khan’s and Jaswant’s campaigning nevertheless bore down on the incipient state that Shivaji was building.  [2, 36] Deciding offence to be the best defence, the unshakeable commander soon struck Surat.

Konkan Campaign & Sack of Surat

He raided the richest port of the Mughals just when his polity was pushed to the brink. The Sack of Surat in 1664 CE, replenished his treasury, permitting him to continue the fight.

Soon jealousy reared its head again. Shivaji’s step-brother Koji and all “the relatives who were jealous of Shivaji’s rise had joined his enemies“. [1,85] It was symptomatic of the past thousand years. Nevertheless, this Bijapuri army was defeated, and the fort of Phonda was taken. Shivaji also took revenge on the captor of Shahji. Baji Ghorpade was hunted down, captured, and executed. From Surat to Hubli, India’s west coast was set ablaze by the firestorm of Shivneri. [1, 86]

The Konkan country would come to command the fates of the Maratha Samrajya &  Bharatavarsha in ways few could predict, and even now, can comprehend. This is seen not only in the later Konkanasthas who would come to power, but also in the coastal fastness of the region that would permit tremendous freedom of movement for the Marathas. It was here that the first Ships of the Marathi fleets were laid. It was here that Sindhudurg was consecrated, and the Siddis of Janjira were put to paid. The predatory portuguese and even the piratical british would be checked.

Jai Singh

Even the greatest general can only hold out so long against terrifying odds. The material resources and political chessboard was overwhelmingly in favour of the mughals. Soon sawai Jai Singh, the best mughal general, was sent to the South. The Kacchwaha Rajput isolated Shivaji from other powers, then unleashed a campaign of fire, sword, and plunder. Turushkas and other mlecchas ran amok under his generalship, against the hapless Maharashtrian people. Soon Shivaji was cornered at Purandar. Despite being a formidable fortress it could not withstand the pounding of heavy artillery. [2, 49]

The magnanimous Maratha would make overtures time-and-again to Rajput rulers  Jaswant Singh, Jai Singh, and even the Maharana of Mewar, saying he would gladly serve them if only they would raise the Dharma dhvaja and reclaim their honour. Alas, none such would come to pass. Mewar was broken and exhausted from centuries of Total War. Even the august Rana Raj Singh for his later rebellion would, like Rana Sanga, be poisoned by his own sardars. Nattering nabobs of negativity had no time for national honour. There were jagirs, zenanas, and havelis to be had… Selfishness, truly, is the real root of all evil.

In yet another example of his strength of character, Shivaji Raje decided to to seek terms with Jai Singh so that his people could live to fight another day.

The Treaty of Purandar (1665) extracted a heavy price from Shivaji, but it kept him in the game. Aurangya had wanted unconditional surrender and all his forts. But Jai Singh agreed to letting him keep 12. But in return, he had Shivaji agree to appearing at the Agra court and to have Sambhaji eventually join the imperial service. Left with no other options, the Tiger of Marathwada agreed.

Escape from Agra

The journey to the mughal imperial centre took several months. Shivaji understood that it would give him a chance to assess the full strength of his opponent. He and Sambhaji travelled with 350 soldiers as escort. Netaji Palkar had also joined the imperial service.

Unsurprisingly, Shivaji was given a less than stellar welcome, in 1666. Both Rajasthani and mughal records confirm that there an outburst at aurangzeb’s audience. Whether it was the overt demotion of Shivaji in the order of precedence or the pain of seeing so many Indian kings bow before a foreign potentate or simply an opportunity to defy a vidharmi, the episode only shows the level of the Maratha’s courage. He had been given Jai Singh’s word of honour that no harm would come to him. Aurangya knew that the whole of Rajputana might be destabilised if Jai Singh were alienated. The Raja’s son Ram Singh was left as veritable bodyguard for Shivaji, so seriously was this word taken as bond. [2, 60]

Nevertheless, the mughal was making provision to have him removed from Jai Singh’s protection. It was only a matter of time before an attempt would be made on his life. Shivaji had to think fast. He was soon arrested and put under Andaz Khan’s supervision. Shivaji dismissed his  350 strong escort with instructions. He then feigned illness, and demanded only vaidyas treat him. Popular legend states that Shivaji and Sambhaji were smuggled out of the makeshift jail in 2 baskets of sweets. But records show that Ram Singh was clearly suspected of complicity in enabling Shivaji’s escape, right under aurangzeb’s nose. [2, 58] Sabhasad, the Marathi chronicler, wrote that Shivaji bribed key mughal officials, after borrowing 66,000 rupees from Ram Singh. He returned this to Jai Singh after safely returning to the Deccan. [2, 62] Ram Singh suffered disgrace for this.

At the Yamuna, Netaji Palkar was waiting, and Shivaji rode to Mathura to reconvene with Sambhaji. They dressed as sanyaasis and went on yaathra to Kashi and Patna. While some claim he traveled through Bijapur, others assert that he went around Golkonda and reached Rajgarh on November 20th, 1667. He had a celebrated reunion with Jijabai Mata.

Settling Scores & Winning Allies

Shivaji recognised his precarious position, and quickly sent a message making nice with the mughals. Although in gratitude he gave half-hearted cooperation to Jai Singh in Bijapur, the mughal campaign ended in disaster due to paucity of artillery. Further, in Shivaji’s absence, many sardars and deshmukhs had turned rogue. The Desais sought refuge with the portuguese, as did many others. Remembering portuguese cooperation with the Mughals, Shivaji invaded Goa in 1670 to teach them a lesson.

Having regained Kolhapur, Satara, and Sangli from Bijapur, Shivaji now sacked a number of towns in Goa. His month long campaign brought the Portuguese to terms with a treaty in 1667. The Catholic Portuguese had a tyrannical regime of religious cruelty, peaking with the Goan Inquisition. Shivaji gained breathing room for the majority Hindu population.

He also settled scores with the British who had aided Janjira (which Shivaji sought to quell).  He had spent 2 years building up his strength, but auranzeb’s general order for the destruction of temples in 1669 reached Shivaji’s ears. Just as he had invested Janjira, his peace with the mughals was forced to end. [2, 73]

Though Aurangya made every effort to erode the power of Shivaji, even confine his soldiers and assign Sambhaji to mansab, it was the destruction of  Kashi Visvanath mandir that was the last straw. Convinced of the python-like effort to squeeze Sanaathana Dharma and Svarajya, Shivaji launched a furious campaign against the mughals, hitting them everywhere he could. Purandar, Lohagad, and Mahuli all fell by June 1670. The capture of Simhagad later became celebrated, and mourned for the loss of gallant Tanaji Malusare. [1, 74] Surat was sacked for a second time. The Battle of Vani Dindori was successfully fought in the aftermath. [1, 77] Berar was plundered next, and Baglana district was conquered. Mughal ascendancy was being challenged even in their settled regions.

“This war revealed Shivaji as a great general and strate-gist. Even today his military moves deserve a deep study.” [1, 87]

Battle of Salher

Salher was an important fort for Shivaji. In 1672, the mughals besieged it. Shivaji  sandwiched them. All the baggage and artillery was left behind, with tremendous booty. Senapathi Prataprao Gujar and Peshwa Moropant Pingle all participated. [1, 83]

Chhatrasal

The example of Shivaji inspired even blue-bloods of the time. Raja Chhatrasal was a Bundela Rajput. He himself sought out and stayed with the Chhatrapathi in 1672, for many months. He later told his son that he was given training by the Marathas, and after magnanimous hospitality, inspired to free his native region of Bundela in 1687.  Shivaji himself had tied a sword around his waist, and blessed him.

“the Mughal-Maratha conflict was basically political— the rise of the sons of the soil against an alien power and alien bureaucracy.” [1, 82]

A Native King is Crowned

‘The ideal he set forth before his people was a Hindvi swaraj (empire), a Maharashtra padshahi (kingdom) but above all a Dharma Rajya, a kingdom of Righteousness.’ This was an ideal for which every caste, from Brahmin to Mahar, could fight shoulder to shoulder.” [5, 756]

Returning to his rajya, Shivaji came to believe time was ripe to be an independent Raja. Though he had received titles from Bijapur and Delhi, he wanted one to assert his sovereignty: Chhatrapathi. As the sovereign lord of the Umbrella of authority, he would put all of Bharatavarsha on notice. Unfortunately, this is where Shivaji’s controversial pedigree provided a roadblock.

Though his mother claimed descent from the Yadavas of Devagiri, the claim of his father’s side being descended from Sisodia Rajputs was contested. Without this patrilineal descent, the Bhonsles would be considered Sudra Marathas, and barred from Kshatriya rite. Since no traditional brahmana could be found to accept this claim and perform Rajabhisheka and Aindrabhisheka for Shivaji, Vishveshvar Gagabhatta of Varanasi was called and convinced of either the validity or, given India’s dire straits, the necessity of the claim. The Chhatrapathi was soon crowned on June 6th, 1674 (Common Era). [2, 100]

Succession Crisis

Jijabai Mata passed away on June 10th, 1674, and unity would soon begin to fray. His son Sambhaji became heir-presumptive. [2, 101] Tragically, even in such a terrible time, there was petty politicking at the Maratha court.

It is not known whether Sambhaji himself joined the mughals at Shivaji’s behest to learn about the enemy’s plans, or whether he left because of the growing rivalry between him and Soyarabai—encouraged by the ashtapradhan. However, it is known that he left and joined Diler Khan as a mansabdar. Regardless, of the fraying situation, Shivaji took no action against his mantris, and set off for one of his most brilliant exploits. [1, 93]

Southern Campaign

In a testament to the strategic genius of Shivaji, he consistently managed to drive wedges between his enemies. Though he had made many overtures to the other Deccan states to form a common front against Delhi’s depradations, he had been rebuffed. Finally, he found the opportunity he was looking for and forged an alliance with Golkonda. He was invited to stay at Hyderabad for a month by Abul Hasan. Tanashah, as he is better known, was among the less tyrannical of the sultans, and appointed Akkanna & Madanna as mantris.

“The political revolution in Golconda, which had resulted in power passing into the hands of the native Andhra population, had brought it closer to the Marathas.” [2, 96]

With the fall of the Kakatiyas, and finally Vijayanagara, the Andhra desa had been groaning under foreign rule. Shivaji represented a bright hope for the return of Dharma, and the streets were lined with Telugu men and women who showered flowers upon him and gave aarathi. He was the saviour they had been looking for.

True to his mastery of statecraft, Shivaji managed to convince Tanashah to finance his entire Southern Campaign, on the pretext that North and South Arcot would be removed from the Qutb Shah’s Bijapuri rival. In reality, Shivaji had no such intention to expand Tanashah’s territory, and was in fact looking for a means to connect his Karnataka possessions at Bengaluru with his relatives at Thanjavur. This would provide the strategic depth he and his successors would sorely need. Tanashah, of course, was no angel, and would anyways patch up with the Adil Shahi dynasty.

Indeed, this would again be underscored when he reached Tanjore. The Chhatrapathi conducted a lightning-fast campaign. Nasir Mohd. surrendered Jinji fort to him. He then captured Vellur. He easily defeated and captured Bijapur’s commanding general—ending Bijapur’s suzerainty in Tamil Nadu. Soon, preparations were made for a family reunion.

The Tamil country had been under the rule of Vijayanagara and its Nayak successor states. After resistance, they were eventually suborned by the Deccan sultanates, who had been ordered to and given leeway by Shah Jahan to conquer as much of the South as possible. Internecine disputes between Thanjavur and Madurai only made it worse, and soon the Marathas of Bengaluru were invited to to settle claims. While they kept their word the first time, repeated disputes caused Venkoji to brush aside the dynasty and establish his own.

Shivaji himself pondered over the merits of an independent Bhonsle dynasty in Tamil Nadu. He himself would have preferred to pension off Venkoji (Ekoji I)—having already measured swords with another son of Shahaji. Rather than risk fratricide, Shivaji Raje wisely chose to leave his step-brother in place at Tanjore. The Thanjavur Maratha rulers would build upon the cultural legacy of their Telugu Nayak predecessors; more importantly, however, they would serve as a pivotal refuge during the darkest days of the 27 Year war with the Mughals.

Regardless, the Marathas were now a 2 coast, peninsular power. After rounding off his conquests, Shivaji (who continued to receive intelligence dispatches) soon heard that the Mughals and Bijapur had patched up. The redoubtable raja of Raigad returned for war.

Sambhaji had learned of Diler Khan’s plans for terrorising the native population of Maharashtra, and returned to Shivaji. It was a heartfelt reunion between father and son.

Last Days

Shivaji, as was the custom of the time, was much married. Along with Saibai (mother of his heir Sambhaji) he married Soyarabai, who became mother of rival claimant Rajaram. In a twist of irony, the practice of polygamy laid the seeds for dynastic conflict once more. The king who claimed descent from the Sisodias soon risked the possibility of a Bhatiyani of his own. Interestingly, Yuvaraj Sambhaji is recorded to have put initial blame not on Soyarabai. Like Kaikeyi before, her mind was said to have been corrupted by the Mantharas of the medieval time…mantris.

“Sambhaji’s self-justification is revealed in the grant which he issued to a Brahmin on 24 August 1680, wherein he said: ‘The Queen’s mind was as pure as crystal. But the evil advice of the villainish ministers that the eldest son should not be given the throne affected her.’” [2, 120]

In fact, the later downfall and martyrdom (veer balidaani) of Dharmakshak Sambhaji is generally attributed to her relatives, but many others assert that the meritocratic mantriparishad of Shivaji was soon coloured by caste monopoly & intrigue in his absence.

The vardanthi of Shivaji on April 3rd, 1680 of medical complications would lead to many political complications. While some claim it was sudden fever, and others that he was poisoned (at the behest of mughals or english), it quite clear that his passing at age 50 clearly benefited the enemies of Hindavi Svarajya. Regardless, it also cemented his legacy as a master of statecraft who had, through conquest and cleverness, secured over 200 forts and a cohesive polity from which his successors would ground the mughal imperium to dust. [1, 94]

“SHIVAJI is one of the great national figures of India. A man of faith as well as action, this extraordinary statesman and general, created a nation, gave its people a cause to fight and die for…Hindawi Swarajya—a State of the sons of the soil.” [2]

Achievements

• Established Hindavi Svarajya, a state dedicated to Dharma & native Bharatiyas
• Conquered, repaired, & constructed numerous strategic forts & coastal fortifications
• Studied & successfully used guerrilla & cavalry tactics of Rana Pratap & Malik Ambar
• Formed the first formidable Indian Navy since the  Vijayanagara Empire
• Mastered and operated excellent Statecraft with wisdom, prudence, courage, & tact
• Formed and maintained a vast and efficient spy system for accurate intelligence
• Executed brilliant diplomatic and strategic maneuvres in face of terrible adversity
• Time-and-again duped more treacherous and more powerful foes, with Koota Niti
• Banned slave trade and ended trafficking of Hindu men & women on the peninsula
• Revived ancient Sanskrit Terminology & Administrative Models
• Demonstrated Rajadharma and Leadership by example, to all Bharatiyas
• Revived the National struggle for Svarajya, Svadharma, & Svabhimaan.

The litany of Shivaji Raje’s achievements could fill the pages with endless lists. Perhaps no ruler, indeed, provincial gentleman, could arise amid such limited beginnings and succeed in the face of such terrible odds. And yet, list his accomplishments we must, not just for posterity’s sake, but for our own. His example, strategies, noble works, and Public Works are as critical now as they were then.

Statecraft

“Jijabai nourished Shivaji spiritually and instilled in him heroism and ambition based on sound moral character by recounting stories from the epics Ramayana and Maharabharat. Later, he made reading the sections in the Ra-mayana dealing with the conduct of war mandatory at all his fort garrisons.” [3, 186]

Despite adversity, the Chhatrapathi had many achievements in this realm, seen even in his persuasiveness in acquiring a title. He was a shaka-karta (founder of an era) and minted his own currency (shivarai hon). [3, 189] The ruler of Raigad proclaimed the Kanujabata, stipulating the basic principles of governance, and provided “instructions for routine guidance of administrators“. [3, 189]

Military

“”At sixteen, Shivaji was place in full charge of the jagir. In the same year, he had conquered the fortress at Torna.” [3, 186]

Shivaji’s military successes are well-known and a testament to his strategic acumen. Putting aside rigid orthodoxy in warfare, he adapted to the Koota Niti of the time and prosecuted a ganimi kava (meaning usage of enemy tactics).

In contrast to the lackadaisical luxury of Dahir in Sindh, there were no women in the camp of Shivaji. Strict discipline was enforced, baggage was light, and plunder was primarily to inflict damage on the enemy rather than rob the populace. Indeed, it was an army not of booty-seekers, but of liberation. War, rather than a ritualistic sacrifice of warriors was the policy to restore Dharma, by all means necessary.

“This light cavalry began to make deep, swift raids and thus collect additional resources for further expansion. By the end of his career he had an equal proportion of the two arms at 100,000 cavalry and 100,000 infantry. His cavalry was three-fourths bargir, pro-vided with horses by Shivaji and only a quarter was silledar which implied that horses were provided and owned by individual soldiers.” [5, 757]

However, one area in which he distinguished himself was the Chhatrapathi’s foresight in establishing and recognising the naval arm en par with infantry and cavalry. Mainak Bhandari and Darya Sarang were his admirals, for a fleet of 500 ships, with 50 frigates.

“Shivaji’s navy commanded by the redoubtable Angria family not only ended the Portuguese monopolistic control of western India’s coastal traffic and commerce but also actively stopped the early moves of the English East In-dia Company in Bombay to step into the Portuguese role.” [3, 188]

Indeed, many today have asserted the importance of tracing Bharat Ganarajya’s Nau Sena back to him. Despite the Chhatrapathi being the true father of Hindavi Svarajya’s navy, the later Peshwa usurpers collaborated with the British in a joint operation to destroy it, on pretext of the tempestuous Angres who commanded it. [8] What is coloured today as “kautilya niti!” was in fact ostensible treachery, and emblematic of Indian politics today. But this is a matter for another time. What matters at present is how the Bhonsles used the incipient Maratha Navy to great effect, in not only bringing the Siddis and Portuguese to heel, but to check even the British, by fortifying the island of Khanderi.

“As a soldier, warrior and general, Shivaji fashioned the army into a truly national one. Perfect discipline, rapid movements, excellent intelligence service, and continuous attention to defence marked his military organisation, and this enabled him to defeat his adversaries time and again. Nor did he neglect the defence of the sea coast. He is rightly called the father of the Indian navy.” [2]

Foreign Policy

“Shivaji was wary and cautious in dealing with foreigners“. [2, 92]  Mughal, Bijapur, and Golkonda aristocracies, and typically their potentates, were of foreign origin. Migrant adventurers and officials from Central Asia, Persia, and Arabia dominated these courts. Indian converts (“Ajlaf“) were sidelined and treated with contempt by these “Ashraf“. [2, 103] As such, desi and pardesi factions were played against each other by Shivaji.

He also had the wisdom to recognise how religion was being misused. When Netaji was forcibly converted by aurangzeb, Shivaji received him with due honour 10 years later and pushed to have him reconverted. He cemented this by giving his own daughter in marriage to Netaji’s son. Shivaji also countered the depredations of Portuguese padres. [2, 108]

As for foreign powers proper, Portuguese and Dutch slave trade of Hindus was banned. After Sher Khan settled the French in Puducherry, Shivaji gave them stern warnings so they would remain on good behaviour, saying a governor would be sent later. [2, 112] He then used the Dutch to play off the British.

Cultural Contribution

Shivaji the conqueror often overshadows the man of culture he actually was. He is known to have memorised both the Ramayana and Mahabharata (of which he would recite portions), and quite clearly imbibed Krishna Niti. However, unlike many of the potentates of the time, Shivaji focused on fulfilling the responsibilities of kingship first, rather than idling in poetry. As such, he wisely delegated the tasked to the learned men of his time.

The Rajavyavahaarakosha was composed under his direction.  And here the panditas should be credited for playing their proper role with courteous cooperation. [2, 131]

Shivaji also had enormous respect for saints of various denominations. He gave patronage to Tukaram. He invited Samarth Ramdas (whom he met later in life) to stay at fort Parli near Satara, and constructed a Rama temple for him.  Shivaji also paid vists to Tirupati and Kaalahasthi in his Southern Campaign. [2, 110]

“Shivaji wanted the spirit of dharma to spread in the State. The word virtue conveys well the meaning of the word dharma.” [1, 130]

Legacy

“He fought for the defence of his homeland. He fought against intolerance, injustice and racial arrogance. His example inspired the Rajputs, the Bundelas and others to follow him. In course of time, his movements assumed the form of an all-India struggle: a struggle which was to change the map of India.” [2]

One of the most poetic aspects of Shivaji Raje’s legacy is how it built upon the legacies of those who came before him. Not only did he claim descent from the Sisodias of Mewar, and take inspiration from Maharana Pratap, but he also venerated Vijayanagara and respected its Royal Family, living under the protection of Mysuru.

Rather than Shivaji failing Bharatiya Samaaj, it is Bharatiya Samaaj that has failed Shivaji. Like Maharana Pratap before him, Shivaji had the repeated even routine indignity of having to fight his own brothers (who sided with a foreign invader for petty agendas).

Shivaji understood one thing that the Rajas of the time did not, which is that the lesser dharma, achara, or maryada can be broken to secure the higher dharma.

While the war with the mughals would eventually be won by his successors, and against the yavanas (Afghans) by the Sikh Empire, the wisdom and foresight of Shivaji would not be leveraged by his descendants to defeat the British. Indeed, long before any other, Shivaji was aware of the degree of deception practiced by the anglistanis. It is why referring to him as mere battlefield tactician does such injustice to his genius at statecraft.

At a time when the role of dharmic mothers in raising great men is being deprecated, Shivaji’s mother Jijabai demonstrates why mothers are the first guru. At a time when puerile murkhapanditas give caste colour to Niti, Shivaji brought all castes together and became its living embodiment. At a time when many are peddling the possibility of “a new type of Dharmayuddh”, perhaps it is time proper study of Shivaji commence again.

Indeed, since Sri Krishna Svargarohana in 3102 BCE, only one man truly imbibed the lessons of the Dvapara yuga avatar, raised the dharma dhvaja once more, and gave us the model of Dharmayuddha for the Kali Age: Chhatrapathi Shivaji Bhonsle.

“Dauntless in face of defeat, and generous in victory, this man of deep religious convictions, cherished the honour of women and championed and practiced tolerance to all faiths. Shivaji’s personality and message are as relevant today as they were in the past” [2]

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References:

1. Tiwari, Vinod. Chhatrapati Shivaji. Delhi: Manoj Publications. 2017
2. Pagadi, Setumadhavarao S. Shivaji. New Delhi: National Book Trust, India. 2011
3. SarDesai, D.H. India: The Definitive History. Boulder, CO: Westview. 2008
4. Sarkar, Jadunath. Military History of India. Delhi: Orient Longman.1970
5. Sandhu, G. S.(Gen). A Military History of Medieval India.New Delhi:Vision Books. 2003
6. Keay, John. India: A History. Basic Books. 2001
7. Athale, Anil (Col.). “Does India Lack a Strategic Culture”. Indian Defence Review.(February 17, 2016)
8. Athale, Anil (Col.). “Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Empire: The Importance of Maritime Power”. Indian Defence Review. vol.32.2. (August 14, 2017)