This is the Second in a Set of Articles on the History of Ayurveda. Post 2 will conduct a survey of Medical Personalities and Texts from Late Antiquity and the Medieval Period.
Continuation
Picking up from where we left off, a lot of medicinal sesame oil has flowed from the time of Divodasa down to Drdhabala, but to etch an empirical history for Ayurveda necessitates covering disparate personalities with hard evidence of their contributions. It means preserving the traditional narrative while providing proof of prior physicians who can be referenced in modern medical journals.
The line between antiquity and late antiquity is almost as difficult to draw as that between sacred history and ancient. Nevertheless, some definite changes are seen in Indic Society starting from around the time of Harsha Shiladitya (better known as Harsha Vardhana from Kannauj). The North Indian Emperor’s epoch marks the last period before a pandora’s box of pan-Indian exposure to foreign ascendancy commences. This is significant because not only can canards of foreign origin of Indian contributions be rejected, but it also counters the temptation to ascribe automatic sanskritisms.
The ambition to assert ancient indianisms to modern terminology (medical or otherwise) should be avoided. Either the term existed or it didn’t. Convenient neologisms
that are homophonous do no one any good. They also damage legitimate cases for prior words that did exist.
It is better to meticulously reference manuscripts or traditional ayurvedic practicioners.Rather than taking away from the grand doyens among ancient Indian doctors (i.e. Sushruta and Vaghbata), this will only reify the credibility of their contributions. From the time of the Samhitas of Early Antiquity, to the redactors of the middle, we reach the commentators of Late Antiquity. The first among these is Bhattara Harichandra.
Personalities
There are, of course, countless Ayurvedic Personalities we could cover.Nevertheless, brevity demands a more concise listing with trenchant contributions. Below is a brief summary of ones previously mentioned, as well as a more detailed description of personalities pertinent to this time period.
Kashiraja Divodasa
Charaka
Sushruta
Maharaja Nimi
Maharaja Janaka
Jivaka
Drdhabala (Punjab)
Vagbhata
Bhattara Harichandra
“Bhattara Harichandra belonged to the same era of Vagbhata. Bhanabhatta (author of Harshacharita) and Vakpatiraj (author of Gaudavadha) consider him as Poet. Rajshekhara (of Kavya Mimansa) has mentioned both Harichandra and Chandragupta of Ujjaini together. [3, 105]
On this basis, many believe Bhattara Harichandra resided in Ujjain and was a bhakta of Lord Shiva. He is dated to approximately the 6th century of the Common Era (CE). Maheshwar (author of Vishvaprakash Kosha) considered him to be his own ancestor. Another was the Court Physician named Sahasanka (whom it is difficult to identify). On the other hand, if he is associated with Chandra Gupta II, then he may be much older and certainly not contemporaneous with Harsa Vardhana. While the time period of this figure may be unclear, his contributions certainly leave no doubt. Bhattara Harichandra redacted Kharanada Samhita.
The physician Chandrata cited the imperative of using the Commentary of Bhattara Harichandra to help understand the Charaka Samhita. [3, 105] This is seen in the sloka he composed:
He was a bhakta of Lord Shiva. His work, Charaka Panjika, is commented upon by Jejjata.
Madhavakara
Jejjata
9th century
A medical authority who compiled commentaries on the Brhattrayi, Jejjata was a commentator who was cited by many Ayurvedic experts who followed him. It is said that Chandrata used the text of Jejjata to correct the existing text of Sushruta Samhita. Though many assert that he was Vagbhata’s pupil, there remains some discrepancy about this, as it is said that he mentioned Vagbhata II as well. [3, 106]
Chandranandana
10th century. Kashmir
The son of Ravinandana, Chandranandana wrote a commentary on the Ashtranga Hrdaya. This was called Padartha Chandrika. He is credited with another work called Gana Nighantu, which based on the name, was a dictionary.
Acharya Tisata (Kashmir)
Chandrata
10th century. Kashmir.
His father was Acharya Tisata. Coming from a medical lineage, Chandrata’s commentary is much-valued. He is credited with a number of works: a commentary on Chikitsakalika, Yogaratna Samucchaya, Yogamushti, Vaidya Kosha, and Patha Suddhi on Sushruta Samhita (text correction). [3, 107]
Gayadasa
11th century. Gauda.
Court physician of Gauda king Mahipala I, Gayadasa is credited with two commentaries. The first was called Nyayachandrika, and was on the Sushruta Samhita. The second was called Charakachandrika and was written on Charaka Samhita.
Gayadasa is known by the title Chandrikakara. [3, 107]
The son of Narayanadatta and the pupil of Naradatta, Chakrapanidatta is another authority from Bengal. He was the medical advisor of the Royal kitchen, and was minister to king Nayapala, also of Gauda. That he came from a distinguished medical family (named Lodhra bali) is obvious not only from his lineage, but also from his elder brother.
Bhanudatta, the senior son of Narayanadatta, was the royal physician, who went by the title ‘Antaranga’. Chakrapanidatta was bestowed with the titles ‘Charaka Chaturanana’ and ‘Sushruta Sahasranayana’. He is credited with the following works:
Ayurveda Deepika Commentary on Charaka Samhita
Bhanumati Commentary on Sushruta Samhita
Dravyaguna Samgraha
Chakradatta (Chikitsa Samgraha)
Sabdachandrika (Vaidyaka Kosha)
Vyakarana Tattva Chandrika
Vyagra Daridra Shubhankar
Sarvasara Samgraha
Dalhana
12th century. Ankola (near Mathura, Braj)
Dalhana was another medical authority who hailed from a prominent medical lineage. His Father was Bharatpala, Grandfather was Jayapala, and Great Grandfather was Govind. They were all vaidyas by profession and honoured by kings of the time.
Taught by a scholar named Bhaskara, Dalhana had excellent knowledge of Ayurveda and other sciences. He quoted as many as 70 medical authorities in his works, with partiality to Jejjata and Gayadasa. His description of flora and fauna is said to be very detailed. He is credited with the Nibandha Samgraha Commentary on Sushruta Samhita.
“Dalhana’s commentary is important because it explains the ideas clearly with required elaborations which are not explicitly in the text.” [3, 109]
Vijaya Rakshita
12th century.
Vijaya Rakshita is credited with the Madhukosha Commentary on Madhava Nidhana. As he did not complete it during his lifetime, his disciple Shrikanthadatta picked up where he left off (Ashmari Chapter) and finished the Commentary.
Shrikanthadatta
12th century. Bengal.
The son of a man named Narayana, Shrikanthadatta studied under Vijaya Rakshita and completed the latter’s work. He admired his guru so much that he wrote 2 verses honouring him in the latter part of the Commentary, Madhukosha. Shrikanthadatta is wholly credited with his own work, which was a commentary on Siddha Yoga. [3, 109]
Damodara (Gujarat)
Sarngadhara(Gujarat)
Arunadatta
13th century CE
The son of Mrgankadatta, Arunadatta wrote an elaborate commentary that is said to be the key to understanding the Ashtanga Hrdaya. In contrast to many of the gaudi writers of the time, this medical authority is considered simple and lucid in his writing.
He cites a plethora of eminent vaidyas, such as Charaka, Sushruta, Agnivesha, Atreya, Ksharapani, Kashyapa, Harita, Kharanada, Jatukarna, Drdhabala & Bhattara Harichandra. Most notably he makes a distinction between Ashtanga Hrdaya and Ashtanga Samgraha, referring to the latter as Vrddha Vagbhata. This lends credence to the theory of 2 Vagbhatas. [3, 110] He is credited with the following medical works:
Sarvangasundara Commentary on Ashtanga Hrdaya
Commentary on Sushruta Samhita
Manushyalaya Chandrika (though this may be another Arunadatta)
Indu
13th Century. Kashmir.
A story in Kerala asserts he was a pupil of Vagbhata, lending additional credence to the theory of multiple Vagbhatas. In this case, it appears to be Rasa Vagbhata. Nevertheless, it is just a legend. Indu himself, however, bemoans the fact that the basic thoughts of Vahata (Vaghbhata) have been “manipulated” by others. He is credited with the following works:
Shashilekha Commentary on Ashtanga Samgraha.
Commentary on Ashtanga Hrdaya
Nishchalakara
13th Century
Taught be Vijaya Rakshita, he was a colleague of Shrikanthdatta and wrote the Ayurveda work Ratnaprabha. This was a commentary on Chakradatta.
Hemadri
13th century. Devagiri, Maharashtra
The famed minister of the Yadava Seuna Kingdom, Hemadripant is a polymath forever associated with Devagiri. His father was Kamadev, his kings were Yadava Mahadeva and Ramachandra Deva. Hemadri is also remembered for his friendship with Vopadeva, on whose works he wrote commentaries. Though an author of numerous works, he is credited with only 1 Rasayana Commentary on Ashtanga Hrdaya. [3, 111]
Vopadeva
13th Century. Vedapur, Vidarbha (Maharashtra).
Himself an oft-credited auteur, Vopadeva was the son of Keshava, a physician of Vidarbha. He was said to have moved to Devagiri, where he received both the patronage and friendship of Hemadripant. He studied under illustrious physicians Dinesa and Bhaskara. [3, 112]. He writes in his Harileela that he composed 9 works on Ayurveda, but only the following are considered significant:
Commentary on Sarngadhara Samhita
Prakasha Commentary on Siddhamantra of Keshav
Shatashloki (100 recipes for good health)
Chandrakala Commentary on Shatashloki
Hrdaya Deepaka
Adhamalla
14th century. Hammirapur.
The nomenclature would indicate Rajasthan, and he is said to been given patronage by king Jaitrasinha (ostensibly a Chauhan ruler). Adhamalla’s father was Bhava Singh and the former is credited with the work Deepika (a commentary on Sarngadhara Samhita).
Vachaspati
14th century. Court physician of Hammira King.
Pronounced Vaachaspathi, his son Gunakara Kavishwar is said to have been a royal physician for Nagaraja of the Taka (Tonk?) dynasty (who ruled a chiefdom at Kashta, north of the Yamuna). Vachaspati’s brother was Raya Sharma, and Vachaspati himself was well versed in Ayurveda. He made ample use of Madhukosha to write his own commentary (Atankadarpana) on Madhava Nidana.
Shivadasa Sen
15th century. Bengal
His father Anantasen was also his teacher. This would prove to be instrumental in his instruction, as Anantasen was the court physician for the chieftain of Gauda. His mother was Bhairavi. Shivadasa’s lineage was as follows: Sahisen→Kakutstha Sen→Lakshmidhar Sen→Uddharana Sen → Anantasen→Shivadasa Sen. [3, 113]
He is credited with the following works:
Tattvapradeepika, a commentary on Charaka
Tattvachandrika, a commentary on Chakrapanidatta
Tattvabodha, a commentary on Ashtanga Hrdaya
Commentary on Yogaratnakar of Bhavyadatta
Basavaraja (Andhra)
Sodhala (Gujarat)
Vangasena (Bengal)
Madhava Upadhyaya
Madhava Upadhyaya was a Saraswat Brahmin originally from Saurashtra. He is thought to have lived in the mid 1600s, and said to have resided in Varanasi. He was an authority on Rasayana (rejuvenation) in particular, and authored the Ayurveda Prakasa. [6, iii] This will be discussed in greater detail in the next section.
Important Texts
There are numerous texts of great value on Ayurveda in general.Below is a listing of the most important. There are a plethora of works on rasayana (rejuvenation) in particular, but these can be discussed at another time for reasons explained later in the article.
For now, we provide a brief enumeration of previous ancient works mentioned, followed by a more detailed explication of those concerning this time period.
Chikitsa Darpana & Chikitsa Kaumudi of Kashiraja Divodasa
Charaka Samhita
Sushruta Samhita
Kashyapa Samhita
Vaidya Sandeha Bhanjana of Janaka
Parasara Samhita
Ashtanga Samgraha of Vrddha Vagbhatta
Madhava Nidana of Madhavakara
8th Century
A work also known as Rogavinishcaya, the Madhava Nidana is an elaborate treatise mentioning numerous causes in symptoms over 69 chapters. As indicated by the name, it is a work on Nidana (diagnosis), and draws from numerous ancient texts.The first chapter itself conducts an overview of Nidana Panchaka, the five factors for successful diagnosis. These are as follows: Nidana (cause), Purvaroopa (premonitory symptoms), Roopa (manifested symptoms), Upashaya (applied therapeutics), and Samprapti (pathogenesis). It also provides a listing of numerous diseases, with special focus on gynaecology. [3, 64]
It was translated into Arabic at Baghdad, as well as into Italian by Mario Vallduri. [3, 65]
Ashtanga Nighantu
8th century
Authored by Vahatacharya, it is one of numerous works specifically on Dravyaguna Vijnaana (pharmacology).
Kalyanakaraka
9th century. Andhra.
Written by Ugradityacharya, a disciple of Shrinandi Acharya, and a contemporary of the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I. He also lists preceding authorities and areas of expertise: (Pujyapada in Shalakya, Patraswami in Shalya, Siddhasena in Visha & Graha, Dasharathaguru in Kayachikitsa, Meghanada in Balaroga, Simhanada in Rasayana & Vajikarana, Samantabhadra in Ashtanga).
This work was composed at Ramagiri Hill, in Vengi (Andhra Pradesh). [3, 84]
“It is the only authoritative text available on Pranavaya tradition of medicine. The text contains twenty chapters” [3, 84
Notable Facts:
Discusses arishta and hitahita (wholesome-unwholesome diet)
Detailed delineation of personal hygiene (dinacharya, ratricharya, rtucharya)
Mentions great diseases (mahamayas) such as balaroga, prameha, and kushta.
Has a chapter on visha roga and panchakarma
Dhanvatari Nighantu
10th century
Composed by Mahendra Bhaugika, this was a popular medical encyclopedia and another key work on Dravyaguna Vijnaana. “Drugs are explained in terms of synonyms, qualities, karmas, uses, classifications and categorisation together“. [3, 96] Hundreds of medical drugs are classified in 7 groups.
Vrnda Madhava
10th century
Authored by Vrnda, this text also goes by the name Vrnda Samgraha. Not much is known about him, but there nevertheless are a number of salient features in his work:
Notable Facts:
Closely follows the index of Madhava Nidana
Explains disease management in 70 chapters
Provides formulae for diseases ranging from Jvara (fever) to Apasmara (epilepsy)
Chikitsakalika
10th century. Kashmir.
Authored by Acharya Tisata (father of Chandrata), the Chikitsa Kalika is another important manuscript on medicine.
Notable Facts:
A work composed in 400 sutras
Mentions numerous herbal medicines as well as the 18 qualities of Aushadham
Enumerates the traditional 8 branches of Ashtanga Ayurveda
Discusses Shiva Gutika and various formulations such as Hingu Panchaka
Lists various diseases such as Jvara, Atisara (diarrhea), & Kushta Roga (leprosy)
Chakradatta
11th century
A work by Chakrapanidatta, it is also called Chakrasamgraha and Chikitsa Samgraha. It is said to borrow much from Vrnda’s Siddha Yoga, as admitted by the author himself. It is widely used by vaidyas throughout India.
Notable Facts:
Discusses Rasayana in some detail as well purification of Parada
Explains various tantric procedures that can be used to treat illnesses
Prescribes Kshudhavati gutika for hyperacidity & kajjali for measles
Lokanatha Rasa is advised for ailments of the spleen and liver
Composed by the famed Paramara Bhoja, king of Dharanagari, the Raja Martanda provides various medical expositions stemming from Ayurveda. In particular, it has a chapter dedicated to Shiro Roga (cranial diseases—from which the author himself suffered and was later cured through operation). It also discusses shalakya tantra (ear, nose, throat) in detail, as well as breast diseases, skin ailments, leucorrhea, diarrhea, diabetes, sexually transmitted diseases, and psychosis. Also has sections on gynaecology, pediatrics, and veterinary science (salihotra). [3, 81]
Gada Nigraha
12th century. Gujarat.
Authored by Sodhala (father of the celebrated polymath Sarngadeva), Gada Nigraha is one of two works composed by this Kashmiri settled in Gujarat. [7, 93] Sodhala was of the Rayakavala family, from Vatsa gotra. Like his father (Bhaskara), he too was a physician, and like his son, he too was a polymath (expert in literature, grammary and jyotisha). [3, 97]
Gada Nigraha is one of two works by this authority (the other being Sodhala Nighantu). It is written in 2 khandas (prayoga and kayachikitsa) and divided into 10 sections. These cover the traditional 8 aspects of ashtanga ayurveda as well as additional sections on visha (poisons) and panchakarma. This work is also said to have included formulae from foreign medicine as well. [3, 81]
Sodhala Nighantu
Andhra Teeka of Ramanujacharya
Vangasena Samhita
13th century. Bengal
Written by Vangasena, himself the son of Vaidya Gadadhara, the Vangasena Samhita is a work of some medical utility. The author himself resided in Kantika, Vanga desa, and the work is known by the alternate title of Chikitsasara Samgraha. [3, 78]
Notable Facts:
The samhita closely follows Vrnda Madhava and Chakradatta
Provides a litany of formulations on Rasaushadhis (herbo-mineral medicines)
Mentions Shankha drava
Explains Soma Roga and various tantric methods in Vashikarana
Provides formulations for Shiva Gutika, Tamra Rasayana, and so on.
Explains rasayana in great detail
Sarngadhara Samhita
13th Century. Gujarat
The son of Damodara, Sarngadhara wrote a brief but valuable text on Ayurveda. The Sarngadara Samhita consists of 2600 verses, in 32 chapters and 3 khandas. It gives a terse but useful survey of formulae from the Charaka Samhita down to the Chakradatta. [3]
Notable Facts:
Divides seasons according to Raasees
Discusses shelf-life of drugs
Explicates calcination and assorted metallurgical techniques
Mentions use of pulse-examination in diagnosis
Explains pharmacology in detail and talks of foreign drugs like Ahiphena (opium)
Describes the process of respiration in scientific detail
Talks of micro-organisms such as Snayuka krimi
Kaiyadeva Nigantu
13th-14th century. Gujarat
Also called PathayapathyaVibodhaka, this work was composed by Kaiyadeva, ostensibly the son of Sarngadhara. [4, 215] It is considered a fairly modern text and provides numerous properties of materials, flora, & fauna (has a chapter on honeybees). [4, 216]
Ayurveda Rasayana of Hemadri
Madhanapala Nighantu
14th Century
This work was facilitated by Gunakar Kavishwar, who assisted Madanapala in completing it. It is divided into 13 vargas (groups). Drugs such as ahiphena (opium), bhanga (cannabis), kankustha, etc. are discussed. Some such as Parasika Yavani—mentioned in the glossary—indicate familiarity with foreign medicine as well. [3, 98]
Veerasimhavalokana of Raja Veerasimha from Gwalior (1375 CE)
Mohamana Vilasa of Mohamana (1411 CE)
Dravya-Guna-Sataka of Trimalla (1498 CE)
Kaumarabhrtya of Prthimalla (15th Century)
Raja Nighantu
15th Century. Kashmir.
Authored by Narahari Pandit (son of Ishwar Suri), this Kashmiri medical dictionary also goes by the name Nighatu Raja and Abhidhana Choodamani. Narahari Pandit was a student of Amrtesaananda, and a bhakta of Lord Shiva. [4, 215] By the writer’s own admission, it is closely patterned on the Dhanvantari Nighantu. The Raja Nighantu classifies various medicines into 23 groups, under the traditional Dravyaguna Vijnaana. [3, 101]
“It is an elaborate work intended to be a collection of the names and medicinal properties of drugs. He provides names of drugs in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhrasa and regional synonyms in Marathi, Kannada, and Telugu.” [3, 100]
Ayurveda Prakasa is critical in investigating the impact of the Indian Practice of Rasayana. It was composed by Madhava Upadhyaya, who will be discussed in detail later, as Rasayana is an interesting branch of Ayurveda. It requires precision knowledge and execution.
“Those physicians who expect result from mercury with-out feeding it black mica, gold and sulphur and those farmers who expect yield from the field without sowing seeds are fools”. [6, i]
Basava Rajiyama
16th century. Kottura village, Andhra
Authored by Basavaraja, who was a Virashaiva descended from Nilakantha, this work is also called Vrsha-rajiyam and Basavakam. It is composed in Sanskrit with ancillary verses in Telugu. His father was fittingly named Namah Shivaya, and his teacher was Aradhya Ramadeshika.
The work itself is said to belong to the Agastya/Rudra Sampradaya of medicine. Better known as Siddha Yoga, a distinct form of medicine collateral to Ayurveda, its purpose was to contribute to the general health and well-being of the common person.
“This work was very popular in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, especially in the former region. It was such a meticulous compilation of numerous authoritative prescriptions that the physicians acquainted with this work considered it unnecessary to study CS [Charaka Samhita], SS [Sushruta Samhita], or MN [Madhava Nidana]” [7,35]
Notable Facts:
An encyclopedic work in 6,400 verses and 25 chapters
Discusses various diseases, medicines, and even Naadi examination
Copious medical classics are mentioned as source material
It is a useful reference for numerous medical texts that are now lost
Contains a tremendous amount of information on Rasayana procedures
Claims it is the most distinguished medical classic of the Kali Yuga, as Charaka was in the Krta, Rasarnava in the Treta, and Siddha Vidya in the Dvapara (see below). [3, 83]
Krte tu charakah proktastretaayaam tu rasaarnavah |
Authored by Bhava Mishra, who is said to have resided in either Magadha, Varanasi, or Kannauj, the Bhava Prakasha is another significant treatise on Ayurveda. Bhava Mishra’s father was Latakana Mishra (thought to also have been a physican). Bhava Mishra himself is also credited with the Gunaratnamala.
Bhava Prakasha is considered “a standard medical work”. It consists of 10,268 sutras, in 80 chapters, and 3 khandas. [3, 68]
Notable Facts:
Aligns closely with Sarngadhara Samhita.Uses jargon of Madanapala Nighantu
Life is said to reside in all parts of the body, but especially Rakta and Shukra
Mentions the STI Phiranga Roga as being spread by contact with Portuguese
Cure of the sexual disease Phiranga roga is said to be Chopachini (smilax china).
Soma roga, a psycho-somatic disease common among women, is described
Advises 3 fold examination and 8 areas of patient examination
The medical purposes of ahiphena (opium) are again mentioned
Gunaratnamala
Yogaratnakara
17th century
Jain priest Nayanashekar is the composer of this medical composition. It focuses primarily on anatomy and surgery. [3, 71]
Notable Facts:
Agni is considered root of strength and Shukra the root of life
Delineates 8 fold examination procedure
Examines Naadi (left hand in females and right hand in males)
Explicates urinate/stool examination in diagnosis
Soma Roga is again mentioned, with kadali ghrta as medicine
Tambakhu (tobacco) is mentioned for the first confirmed time
Discusses the medicinal purposes of mercury (parada)
Various medicinal formulations are also discussed
Vaidya Jeevana of Lolimbaraja (1633 CE)
Yogasangraha,Yogachintamani & Vaidyaka Chikitsa Sangraha of Harsakeerthisuri (1666 CE)
Vanaushadhi (Bengal)
Nighantu Adars of Baplalbai (Gujarat)
Global Impact
This Charitra of Ayurveda up until some time around the late 1600s and early 1700s is one that is very much unchallenged and very much rooted in the Indian Subcontinent’s traditional medicine. For all the talk of Unani, as we demonstrated in part 1, Greek and Persian Medicine learned from Ayurveda rather than the other way around. India was almost invariably a transmitter of its knowledge of healing.
Influence
“The doctrine of the humours is taught in unmistakable terms in the holy books of the Hindus, which were composed prior to 2000 B.C. From India the theory seems to have spread to Persia and the Persians, who seem in matters scientific always torch-bearers rather than torch-lighters, carried the doctrine on” [1, xiii]
“as appears from the writings of Hippocrates, Dioscorides and Galen, various drugs and methods of treatment employed by the physicians of Indian were adopted by the practicioners of Greece.” [5, 176]
Indeed, as the attempts to digest Ayurveda ascend in number, it becomes incumbent upon all of us to assert the native nature of the tradition.
And we asserted it in Article 1. In Part 2, the avenue to be explored in a bit more detail is that of the transmission of Ayurveda to China and other parts of East Asia. In fact, Tibet and South East Asia show the clearest (and most honourably admitted) signs of Indian influence. Tibetan medicine, for example, espouses the Panchabhautika and Tridosha theories. Numerous Sanskrit works were translated in the 8th century, with special mention for Ashtanga Hrdaya. [3, 170]
As for South East Asia, the Khmer Emperor Jayavarman II (800s CE), established numerous hospitals and gave patronage to Ayurveda. The propagator of medicine in Thailand was called ‘Kumara Bhaccha’, an epithet of Jivaka. The fifth Emperor of Thailand invited various vaidyas from India, who compiled a text called Vaidyaka Sara Sangraha. Even today, a Thai magazine named ‘Vaidya Karma Sandesh’ is published. [3, 170]
Returning from the farthest reaches of the Indosphere in general, back to the Indian Subcontinent in particular, one finds the tradition of Ayurveda preserved in Sri Lanka. The ‘Nikhil Lanka Ayurveda Sammelan’ was founded in 1928, and two major institutes are there: one at Colombo and another at Rajagiriya. As for Nepal, the geopraphical contiguity between it and modern India, ensured a natural Guru-Sishya parampara there, particulary at Kathmandu. Many ancient texts, such as Kashyapa Samhita are preserved there. Ayurveda remains widely respected and Tribhuvan University at Kathmandu runs a College of Ayurveda. [3, 170] Irrespective, before completing our Himalayan Circuit, it is important to revisit Bharat’s conception of the corpus.
The Indian conceptualisation of the body is one not merely limited to matter. There is the concept of the material or gross body (sthoola sareera) and subtle body (sookshma sareera). Per the notion of the sookshma sareera, the physiology of the body begins to take a most metaphysical turn. From the base chakra to the thousand petal lotus, yoga and tantra alike assert that 3 columns (ida, pingala, and sushumna) transmit shakti from bottom to top. Inter-twined with them, are thousands of channels known as naadis, which themselves often intertwine at points known as marmas. It is at the confluence of these rivers of energy that one finds the foundational concept behind soochi karma. [8] Better known today as Acupuncture, there is a small but growing school of thought that asserts that this Chinese Intellectual Property in the medical realm, much like the martial arts, finds its origin in India. Is ancient Chinese Acupuncture ultimately derived from Indian soochi karma?
Though not widely practiced today, due to the fame of kalaripayattu, medical knowledge of the marmas is well-known. And while Acupuncture is certainly an inextricable part of Chinese heritage (and should remain so), the historical origin of this practice is worth studying and exploring further. Certainly, Indian doctors were as widely known in Chinese courts as they were in the Caliphate. Furthermore, knowledge may not have always been properly transmitted or retained, as one Qin potentate certainly found out.
According to legend, the Chinese Emperor Chin Shi Huang Di was said to have employed many medical doctors in the hopes of extending his own lifespan. They were known to have prescribed various mercurial concoctions—ironically said to have shortened his lifespan and driven him mad. But what was the source of this theory?
Adhyaapayanthi yadhi darsayithum kshamanthe moothendrakarma guravo gurvasthe eva |
“Those are only to be considered preceptors who teach and also perform the Mercurial operations practically and those are real disciples who perform the Mercurial operations in the presence of preceptors. The remaining are simply pretenders.” [6, 2]
As apparent in the brief biography of Madhava Upadhyaya, there is another art within Ayurveda, that perhaps justifiably, has not received much fame. This is the practice of Rasayana, or rejuvenation. Though focused primarily on the restoration of an individual’s health via various minerals, due to its interest in chemistry (Rasa Sastra); however, its fulcrum centres around the use of the element Mercury. Known today for its poisonous effects, mercury use was controversial. Specifically, its use in rejuvenation or even prolongation is something for which alchemists & quacks of all kinds have been credited.
However, vaidyas such as Madhava Upadhyaya maintained this was due to incompetence on the part of those who were not properly trained in Ayurveda.
“Rasasastra the mercurial system is the first science that has warned about the toxicity of using raw and unprocessed Mercury. It has cautioned to the extent that unpurified Mercury could cause even death. Therefore the iatro-chemistry of Rasastra should be understood safe and effective since the raw materials undergo diligent processing before making them into a dosage form” [6, i]
The Emperor after whom China is named may not have benefited from correct Rasayana, but the belief of mercury as rejuvenator (rightly or wrongly) can be traced to India. Texts such Rasarajalakshmi, Rasapaddhati, Rasaratna Samucchaya, Rasachintamani, Yogatarangini, and Ayurveda Prakasa should be study closely, but also carefully. How valid were the texts? Have there been positive results from the use of mercury? Were there deviations from the time of Charaka down to Madhava Upadhyaya? All these are questions that must be asked not only by Ayurvedic experts today (and scholars of Indian medicine tomorrow), but in future articles in this Series on Ayurveda.
Having covered Late Antiquity and the Medieval period of the Medical History of India, one reaches turning point. Article 1 in this Set studied the origins, and Article 2 demonstrates its developments from the Samhitas down to the Commentaries. However, Article 3 will be notable because we see India, to some degree, turning receiver rather than merely transmitter. Whether these ideas and ultimately this form of medicine known as Allopathy will prove to be beneficial in the long run is the current question of the hour. Nevertheless, it makes this turning point a natural stopping point.
Conclusion
Whether it is the Brhat Trayi (Charaka, Sushruta, Vaghbata) or the Laghu Trayi (Madhavakara, Sarangadhara, Bhava Mishra), there are certain very Indian consistencies in Classical Indic Medicine.
From Sacred History through Ancient History, and from Ancient History through Medieval History, we have covered two epochs in the annals of Ayurveda. But the third one to be considered is the Modern epoch. This will deal with Company Based Colonialism down through the Modern and now Post-Modern periods.
It will also ask crucial questions regarding the immediate future of Ayurveda, and how the tradition can be preserved while ensuring pragmatic patient-care.
References:
Kutumbiah, Dr. P. Ancient Indian Medicine. Hyderabad: Orient Longman.1999
Acharya Balakrishna. Ayurved: Its Principles and Its Philosophies. New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books. 2006
Yadav, Dr. Deepak “Premchand”. History of Ayurveda. Varanasi: Chaukhamba Subharati Prakashan.2013
Varier, N.V.Krishnankutty.History of Ayurveda.Kottakal,Kerala: Arya Vaidya Sala.2016
Sharma, Krishna (Ayurvedacharya). The System of Ayurveda. Khemraj Shrikrishnadass. Bombay: Shri Venkateshwar Steam Press. 1995
Murthy, P.C.H. Ayurveda Prakasa. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. 2017
Rao, S.K. Ramachandra. Encyclopaedia of Indian Medicine (Volume One): Historical Perspective. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. 2005
Mehra, Rakhee. Significance of Ayurvediya Marma: Vital Body Points. Readworthy: New Delhi. 2008
