Readers reading along would have read our introductory post on Rajadharma. But Rajadharma is not all principles without political acumen. It is not merely roles without structure. If Rajaniti protects the order of Rajadharma, then the administrative order must be specified for all to understand their roles. Napoleon-complexed netas are a nuissance inside and outside of government. Therefore, competence must be recognised, loyalty must be rewarded, and all must know their place, or be put in it, by a righteous leader.

In light of that, we now bring to you the second installment in our Continuing Series on Rajadharma II: Governance & Administration.

Introduction

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5GBqv67Vrf4

The name Bharata has a storied history dating back long before Bhaarat Ganarajya. It is the name not only of this subcontinent, or even the Svayambhuva Manvantara era son of Rishabhadeva, but of two Bharatas known for different aspects of administration, and even, two different forms of Tyag (thyaaga). If Bharata of the Ikshvakus was legendary for rejecting his claim to the throne of Rama, then Bharata of the Kurus was renowned for denying his unqualified sons the throne of Hastinapura.

So how then to decide who is best suited for what role?  Character and conduct have always been the primary determinants, but the benefits of upbringing are manifold as well. While it is important to identify talent in other classes (as in the incumbent Pradhaan Mantri of Bharat Ganarajya), it takes a lifetime of preparation to become a national leader.

 Even if there is no princely title or formal position or ceremonial political power, at the heart of Rajadharma is the philosophy of Raja protecting Praja. Praja Dharma in turn is an extension of Rajadharma, necessitating citizen to support leaders and themselves facilitate policies and projects in line with the public interest. This is why ideology in any form (anti-Hindu or pro-Hindu) must be rejected, in favour of pro-Dharma Philosophy. The Philosophy of Governance is Rajadharma.

A king should, without doubt, look upon his subjects as his own children. [2, 152]

So what were the qualities of the ancient Kshatriyas?  Imbibing such characteristics, as possible, is crucial for future leaders of Bharatavarsha, who may come from any caste. Kamandaki, pupil of Kautilya, stated them as follows:

6-9. “The qualities of a worthy ruler are the following—Nobility of his lineage, composure (in all circumstances, fair or foul), youthful vigour, good conduct, compassion, promptness (in executing royal business) con-sistency (in speech and action), truthfulness, rendering due service to the learned (vrddhasevaa), gratefulness, faith in divine dispensations, intelli-gence, association with the large hearted (liberal) men (and not with men of narrow outlook), possession of strong feudatories (sakyasaamanta, well able to assist the king in tackling the enemies), deep devotion (to spiritual and material affairs), farsightedness, energy, purity (internal and exter-nal), ambition (to effect expansion of territory) and augmentation of wealth (sthoolalaksya), power of self-restraint and piety. Endowed with these qualities (saadhvaabhigaamikaa) a king enjoys the support of the honest people (they become his ardent followers).”[6, 69]

Kamandaki goes on to explain why a king need not be an ascetic, but he does require self-control.

Seve’eth vishayaan kaale mukthvaa thathparathaam vase |

Sukham hi phalamarthasya thannirodhe vruthaa sriyam ||S.1, P.1, sl.49

“A self controlled person may enjoy material pleasures in proper time without any attachment for them. Happiness is the fruit of pros-perity, but when happiness is disturbed or obstructed, prosperity is of no avail.” [6,23]

This comports with Badarayana himself who speaks to a more general audience.

Terminology

• Chakravarthin—Paramount Sovereign who turns the Wheel of Dharma
• Chhatrapathi—One Umbrella Ruler
• Ekaraat—Sole Sovereign
• Samraat/Sarvabhauma—Emperor
• Maharajadiraja—King of Kings
• Maharana—Pradhan Mantrin of Lord Shiva
• Bhupala—Protector of the Earth
• Maharaja—Great King
• Maharani/Mahishi—Great Queen/Chief Queen
• Raja—King
• Desadeesvara/Rashtrapathi—Regent/Protector of the State
• Rajamata—Queen Mother
• Rani—Queen
• Yuvaraja—Crown Prince
• Rajakumara—Prince
• Rajakumari—Princess
• Vilaasam/Bhavana/Prasaadhya—Palace

 

• Samahartr/Pradhaan—Chancellor
• Samnidhatr—Treasurer
• Mahakshatapatalika—Comptroller Auditor General (CAG)
• Dvarapaala—Chamberlain
•  Amatya—Advisor
• Mantrin—Minister
• Adhyaksha—Department Head
• Uparika—Viceroy
• Rajapramukha—Civilian Governor
• Senadipathi—Commander in Chief
• Senapathi/Senani—General
• Sainyapramukha—Military Governor
• Saamantha—Feudatory/Subsidiary King/Vassal
• Kshatriya—Royalty, Nobility, Upper Aristocracy, Administrator
• Nayaka/Sardar/Daamara—Commander, Gentry, Lower Aristocracy
• Upanayaka—Lieutenant
• Veera—Warrior
• Sainik—Soldier
• Paalagala—Courier
• Prasastr/Mahalipika—Chief Record Keeper
• Lipika/Lekhaka—Clerk/Scribe
• Duta—Envoy/Ambassador
• Spasha—Spy

 

• Raja Purohita—Royal Officiant
• Kula Guru/Acharya—Royal Preceptor
• Adhikaarin—Official
• Dharmastha—Judge
• Pradestr—Magistrate
• Dharmasabha —Court
• Nagarapaala—Mayor
• Mandalesvara—Administrator of a sub-region
• Karagrahin/Gopa—Tax Collector
• Karanam/Angika—Accountant
• Sulka—Import/Export/Customs duty
• Panchayat—Village Council
• Graamika/Graamani—Village Head
• Graamavriddha—Village Elder
• Aarakshaka/Dandapaani—Police Officer
• Neta—Leader
• Karmakaara—Worker

As per the ancient and strict Varnashrama Dharma, Kings, Ministers, Officials, Governors, Generals, and Commanders were Kshatriyas. Obviously, in the Kali Age, strict Varnashrama Dharma could not be observed, and subsequently, other varnas starting with Brahmanas, and later Vaisyas, and Sudras (and in some cases Panchamas and Vanavasis) began to be introduced in these functions. In the present time, irrespective of birth varna/jaathi (i.e. caste) all who perform these functions must observe Kshatriya Dharma. Though the attitude must be one of governance and public-minded administration, if there is a traditional ruling class in Dharma, it is the Kshatriya Varna.

While jaathi (clan, etc) is by birth, Varna as function, very often isn’t and is driven more by guna-karma (character/conduct). Therefore, it is important to reassert not only what Kshatriya Dharma is but who must observe it. If one cannot observe this Dharma, then they should not have aspiration towards the position. Positions should be appointed on the basis of competence, positional seniority, and character.

Sources of Law

Understanding governance requires understanding law. In the present time, due to the influence of foreigners, law and dharma have become nearly mutually exclusive. But as recent commentators even in videshi lands have remarked, to separate law from justice is to perpetrate injustice. Similarly, to unduly separate law from dharma is to actualise adharma. Law must be steeped in Dharma. It derives its legitimacy from Dharma. Therefore, to understand law (vyavahaara), one must correctly understand dharma.

Dharmasastra—A tremendous body of literature, Dharmasastra includes many tomes of texts amassed over thousands of years. Rishis, Rajas, and venerable personalities of various types contributed to the difficult business of defining Dharma. While no canon can account for a simplistic frozen law for all time, the vast array of opinions and commentators and Vedic authorities bridge the understanding between practice and principle, spirit and letter. These were updated over time as changes between Baudhayana and Apastamba Dharmasutras themselves show. Royal laws must take into consideration or at least be inspired by the ideals found in Smriti, Sutra, and Nibandha.

Legal Precedent (Parakrti)—Previous decisions and pronouncements of law by Kings and Judges serve to define what precisely is in fact legal and illegal. This primarily takes place via assorted penal codes and decisions, which necessarily draw from dharmasastra. Nevertheless, they in turn are balanced by Niti/Nyaya as determined by paristithi.

Custom (Sishta)—As Bheeshma Pitamaha declared in the Rajadharma anusaasana parva, in the Shanthi Parva of the Mahabharata, that custom also can have legal effect. Customs of different communities and countries can become an integral part of a population’s way of life. However, as Apastamba writes, these should be consistent with Veda. Where even this is not possible, these should be consistent with the spirit of Saamaanya Dharma.

Royal Decree (Saasana). Edicts by the King (or Executive branch of government) can have legal effect. However, there is the perennial danger of descent into caprice and tyranny, and thus, these decrees are typically least weighty in Dharma, but have the greatest gravity when it comes to implementation. Where the ruler is a recognised protector of Dharma, these saasanas should, generally, be speedily implemented. Where this is not known or contrary-wise, officers must be circumspect in their enforcement, and if possible, petition the King to reconsider.

There is nevertheless, an alternate view. “This view of the supremacy of the royal decree is exceptional among Indian writers; it comes in first with Kautilya, and is traced only in Narada among subsequent texts. Kautilya also exalts reason (nyaya) above the prescription of texts (sastra) in cases of conflict between the two, and boldly justifies the course on the pleas that texts become corrupt with the lapse of time.” [12, 174]

Though the status and utility of Vyavahaara is stressed by Bheeshma, matters pertaining to it are best discussed elsewhere, due to the specialised nature of the topic. The gravamen of this article remains administrative Rajadharma.

Directives of Rajadharma

This well-known videshi adage in the present time has a number of Dharmic corollaries. Politics in the current era extends from Strategy. Strategy is determined by elements of Statecraft. Statecraft makes Governance practical. Governance is made possible by Niti. Niti is used to uphold Dharma. Therefore, Dharma must be learnt first because Niti without Dharma is dangerous. Niti should be learnt next, because Dharma without Niti leads to nuisance & naasana.

So in line with this approach, what are some of the general directives of Rajadharma? Kautilya exhorted the primacy of Raksha, Paalana, and Yogakshema as the cardinal directives. But there are other aspects as well.

Governance, in many ways, is a conversation with Kings. By studying history we understand the conduct of Kings, and in turn, the directives of Rajadharma.

One is the well-known process of successor nominations, confirmations, and even elections of Kings. This practice is dated to the Vedic period seen even late Antiquity:

“If the King died with no heir to the throne much power was wielded by the magnates of the realm, for the courtiers, nobles, ministers, religious leaders and wealthy merchants would sometimes meet and choose a king. Thus the nobles of Kanyakubja invited Harsa to assume the throne when Grahavarman died childless.” [11, 93]

In addition, Rajadharma referring to governance, did not concern Kings alone. There were many Queens (some of them ruling) who implemented the directives of this Dharma. In Antiquity, Prabhavati Gupta notably ruled as regent of the Vakataka Kingdom, ally of  Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.

“Women in politics were often to be found in the medieval kingdoms of the Peninsula; for instance Akkadevi, sister of the Calukya king Jayasimha II (1015-1042), was a provincial governor, and Kundavai, the elder sister of the great Cola Rajaraja I, seems to have played a role similar to that of Rajyasri. Women even sometimes took part in war—Akkadevi fought battles and superintended sieges, while Umadevi, queen of the Hoysala king Viraballala II (1173-1220), led two campaigns against recalcitrant vassals.” [11, 91]

Bheeshma, Vidhura, Sukra, and Kautilya all discuss in great detail, foreign policy, the nature of war and the fundamentals of defending the Realm. As a result, one must note that Saama-dana-bheda-danda did not begin with Chanakya. Both Bheeshma and Vidhura discuss it at length. They also explain the centrality of fortifications and sound administration of the army.

Taxes were generally expected to be light, with the traditional rule being 1/6th of of one’s land revenue. However, these could be increased in time of war. There were classes that lived tax-free (i.e. vaidika brahmanas, children, students, ascetics, etc). There were also custom duties, taxes on various goods & services, and also road tolls. Some rules of tax policy:

• taxations should never act as a check to trade & industry
• king should tax as a bee partakes of honey (without hurting the flower)
• taxes should be fixed as to allow a profit to the taxpayer
• articles of commerce should not be taxed more than once
• tax increases should not be instituted without due warning [11]

Conscripted labour (vishti) from capable citizenry could take place in times of emergency. However, treatment must be dignified as conscription is not slavery. Conscripted labour in lieu of taxes was also accepted (with worker protection). While tax default could result in eviction, a year or more was given as grace period.

Furthermore, contrary to the present time of FDI driven free market economics, Public Sector Units had a critical role to play.

“The state owned manufactories for spinning and weaving, which were staffed by indigent women….Munitions of war were made in state arsenals, and ships were built in state ship-yards, to be let out to fisherman and merchants. In fact there was no question of laissez-faire in ancient India.” [11, 101]

Also contrary to the present time, Indian Rulers and Ministers understood tact and diplomacy and treated subordinate kings and allies with respect. Rather than “kick the one who licks and lick the one who kicks“, Kings, Ministers, & Generals practiced self-respect, and were frequently prepared to meet death in protecting the interest of the state and the people. Knowing the difference between bending when you must and crawling to get table scraps is the difference between aristocrats and court eunuchs. Nevertheless, there were expectations of fealty from those who had professed it.

“In his charters the vassal was expected to mention the name and title of his overlord before his own.” [11, 94]

There is also the modern oversight of Dharmic leadership in failing to groom successors. Much of this is a result of the lack of trustworthiness today, but there is a difference between training competent subordinates and teaching all of one’s craft.

Finally, as Bheeshma states, these are the elements of the state: King, ministers, treasury, territory, army, forts, allies.This in turn segues to the governmental structure. [2, 117]

Governmental Structure

Governmental structure of any polity is premised not only on its breadth, but also on its depth. Dharmic governance is, contingent to exigencies, decentralised in nature. Centralisation paves the path to Adharmic concentrations of power, and ultimately, oppression. The greatest Emperors expanded without always devouring or overturning cooperative kings. They were aware that locals were the best equipped to govern themselves in line with desa-kaala-paristithi.

Nevertheless, history demonstrates that an effective governmental structure was in fact in place. Kings may have been reinstated, and locals appointed to municipal corporations, but there was a detailed understanding of how polities, kingdoms, and empires should be structured. Knowledge of geography is instructive here.

Varsha/Khanda

This refers to any subcontinent, or portion of common rains, on a continent. Bharatakhanda is a subcontinent on the continent of the roseapple vine (Jambudveepa). India may be a diverse landmass with an even more diverse population, but it is also the home of a civilization (sabhyata). As such, the august Chakravarthins of yore cast wide imperial shadows from the days of the original Kanyakubja down to late antiquity’s Kanauj.  Ayodhya, Indraprastha, Ujjayini, Rajagrha, & Pataliputra were all imperial cities where paramount rulers once proclaimed their Universal Sovereignty, and vassal kings from the Five Indies paid homage in court.

Rashtra

In the topsy turvy Kali Age, it is not only classes and peoples who have become mixed, but even terminology. Rashtra is used today for states/provinces (such as Andhra Pra-desh) and Desa used for nations (such as Bharat). But historically this has not been the case. Desa referred to the various regions such as Andhra desa, Anga Desa, Vanga Desa, Dravida desa, Kashmira desa etc. Rashtra was the more generic term for polity or nation,  and Bharatavarsha or Bharatakhanda the more common term for the Indian Subcontinent (which being a civilization, was not typically politically centralised). Therefore, rashtra here refers to any independent state, such as the old Mahajanapadas, as well as the current Bharat Ganarajya. Although rashtrapaalas are mentioned as governors, modern India has the more correct title in Rashtrapathi.

Rajadhaani

The capital city had a central place in administration. It was from here that a ruler would survey the land and govern its population. Defensible terrain, strong fortifications, ample water & other resource supply, and central location are the primary criteria in choosing a capital city. The governor and chief administrator of a city (nagarapaala) should naturally be among the most loyal of officials when he oversees the all-important capital.

A demesne, or King’s own domain, or capital region is advisable to secure supplementary resources directly under the King’s control. With substantial assets within immediate reach, he is no longer at the mercy of subordinates and governors.

This is all the more relevant in the wake of alternative typologies in later eras. In the medieval period, the decentralised Nayankara system of Andhra (later adopted by the Vijayanagara Empire) was resilient and highly effective in withstanding formidable foreign invasion. But this also underscored the utility of such a demesne or national capital region.

Naadu/Visaya

A regional subunit or province. Visaya was the more common term, but Naadu more appropriate given the present language today, and is in use (Tamil Nadu). Governors were typically appointed directly by the ruler. Vassal kings generally had status on par with these Nadus, depending on their size.

Mandala

A cluster of 20 villages organised around a town, the mandala was governed by a state-appointed mandalika/mandaleshvara. However, he typically made decisions in deliberation with a council of leading citizens. This is attested to in Gupta and Chola inscriptions. Such councils included the chief scribe, the chief accountant, the chief craftsman, and so on. [11, 103]

Kampana/Graamajaala/Sthala

Sthala is a term used frequently for plots of land. As such, the term kampana or graamajaala may be more appropriate to refer to a cluster of villages (5 or more). Further study is provided in Sthaapatya Veda, regarding the proper outlay of villages and even houses. A gopa would likely have been the main collector for between 1 and 5 villages, reporting to the karagrahin.

Bheeshma gives us a different structure that is more decimal in nature. Villages were grouped into clusters of 10, 100, and 1000. The village headman would report to a gopa, the gopa would report to a sthaleshvara, who in turn would report to a mandaleshvara.

Nagara/Pura

Nagarapaalas were the mayors of major cities. One such famous city governor was Parnadatta, whose son Chakrapaalita assisted him in administration. During the reign of Emperor Skanda Gupta, he became a popular figure in Girnar, when the dam there burst.

“He caused distress to no man in the city, but he chastised the wicked.

Even in this mean age he did not fail the trust of the people

He cherished the citizens as his own children and he put down crime.

He delighted the inhabitants with gifts and honours and smiling conversation,

and he increased their love with informal visits and friendly receptions.” [11, 104]

Graama

“the village in ancient times was the bulwark of religion, tradition, and custom”[7, 224]

What is the difference between a town and a village? The villages of ancient India were often so well-organised, that they might be large enough to be considered a small town. Nevertheless, there clearly were distinct towns (kubjaka) and villages (graama), which could have as many as 1,000 families. [11, 104] Modern panchayats are in fact nothing new:

“Sir John Macpherson in his Minute of the 4^th July 1786 says about the Indian village, rather flatteringly, thus: ‘It is much to discover with certainty, that we have yet a great deal to learn in the revenue line, and we are fortunate if we can collect and take up the links of ancient forms. One thing is certain, nothing was more complete, more simply, correct and systematic than the ancient revenue system of this country. It was formed so as to protect the people who paid it from oppression, and secure to the sovereign his full and legal rights” [7, 223]

“This system of village government turned the villages more or less into small republics. It however became rigid in course of time, and prevented the growth of the several elements that composed the village community, by investing the age-long social custom with a halo of sanctity, and imparting too much power to tradition and usage, with no deviation whatsoever from the past.”[7, 224]

Administrative Structure

Rajadharma (Governance) and Arthasastra (Statecraft) are intimately related. Nevertheless, they are distinct concepts. In a sense, Arthasastra picks up where Rajadharma leaves off. As Silpa is contained in Sthaapatya Veda, so too is Arthasastra a subordinate branch of Rajadharma. Therefore, the principles and essentials of Governance are covered under the latter, and the pragmatic conduct and actualisation of this under the former.

Bheeshma Pitamaha himself demonstrates this in his expository on Rajadharma in the Rajadharma Anusaasana Parva of the Mahabharata.  As shown previously, much of what is considered “Chanakyan” in fact is merely restatement of concepts previously discussed by Vidhura and Bheeshma. Even Bheeshma discusses deceit being required to defeat deceit, as demonstrated by Krishna Niti. All these commentators expounded the existing branch of Vedic epistemology ultimately originating with Brahma. Each one provides his own view, which typically varies based on time, place, manner. Chanakya merely brought it forward once society was deep into the Kali Yuga, demonstrating the degradation of the state of society, politics, and the people of all classes.

Nevertheless, the Arthasastra of Kautilya is useful for the purposes of studying the structure of the ancient state if only for its comprehensive description. He provides 18 different categories of mahamatras (high officials). [5, 208] Many of these positions were divided into deliberative officials (matisachiva/dheesachiva) and executive officials (karmasacheeva). The former are typically associated with amatyas and mantris and the latter with adhyaakshas and lesser officials. [11, 100] Rather than concentrate power in a single Pradhaan mantri, he distributes power between the king’s two main subordinates, Samahartr (Chancellor) and Samnidhatr (Treasurer).

The Chancellor is tasked with overseeing implementation of primary executive functions such as maintenance of law & order and revenue collection. However, the Samnidhatr was the one assigned with responsibility for the Treasury, Granaries, and Storehouses (with relevant subordinate officials). These were among the highest paid positions, along with the Crown Prince, the Chief Queen, and the Commander-in-Chief. While Chanakya advises commensurate remuneration for the Purohita, Ritvik and Kulguru, this is not in line with the specified lifestyle of traditional brahmanas (which is why Bheeshma considers the first two as the equivalent of Kshatriyas). Per Shanti parva of the Mahabharata, traditional Brahmanas were not in the formal employ of the King, though they could be advisors invited for comment. Either way, comfortable maintenance of these 3 sattvic positions and defraying of their state expenses is a duty of the King.

Amatyas served purely an advisory role to the King as general counselors. What is the difference between an amatya and mantri? Well, a counselor merely provides counsel, while a minister can ad-minister. A mantriparishad was a cabinet with advisory and executive obligations as well. Though it is best for a King to oversee this parishad directly, Pradhaan or Samahartr could convene them when necessary, with royal assent. A Mantri is ahead of an Amatya in political precedence. The Chief Comptroller-Auditor (Mahakshatapataalika) and Royal Scribe (Prasastr) reported directly to the King, and were treated en par with other mantris.

Beneath these positions are the second grade of officials. This includes the Dvarapaala (or Dauvarika) and Antarvamsika. The former is the Chamberlain (literally, ‘doorkeeper’) who acts as his chief of personal staff, particularly with regards to his schedule and daily regimen. The latter is the Commandant of the King’s Own Guards. These positions received half the salary of the first grade. They reported directly to the King despite their second grade level. A vedic era position, Paalagala (courier) was uniquely assigned to Sudras. The Paalagala was one of the ratnin (king-anointers). The Dauvarika attends the mantriparishad and Raja Sabha while the Paalagala attends only the Raja Sabha.

Below them are the various provincial governors. The department heads (adhyakshas) were subordinate to the Samahartr and Samnidhatr. On the military side, beneath the top level Senadipathi and various Senapathis, were Nayakas, Upanayakas, and Durgapaalas (Fort commanders).

A Karmantika headed the various Manufacturies. Also reporting to the Samahartr where the Rashtrapaalas/Naadupaalas (provincial governors) and Dharmasthas (judges).  [5, 211] Anthapaalas were frontier governors who guarded the borders and did customs checks on caravans and foreign travelers. They had official passport functions and relayed information to the Chief Collector of Customs.  A Nagarika was a City Governor (more often termed Nagarapaala), who served as Mayor of a major city. For law and order there would be pradestr (magistrates ) under him, as well as rakshin (guards). Civil administration would feature wards headed by a sthaanika (corporator) each with his own Gopa (record keeper). [5, 223]

Penultimately, there are the various Departments, within an administration.  While the important ministries of Revenue Collection and Treasury were among the highest, they had a number of subordinate departments, typically headed by Adhyaakshas. These were exhaustively compiled, so the main departments will be provided: Koshadhyaksha (treasury), Lakshanadhyaksha (mint & coinage), Akadhyaksha (mining & metallurgy), Sitadhyaksha (crown lands), , Ayudhagaradhyaksha (military ordnance), Pattyadhyaksha (infantry), Ashvadhyaksha (cavalry), Go-adhyaksha (cows), Mudradhyaksha (passports), Koshtagara-adhyaksha (warehouses & factories), Manadhyaksha (surveyor & timekeeper), Sulkadhyaksha (customs & duties), Pattanadhyaksha (ports & trade), Navadhyaksha (shipping), Bandagradhyaksha (jails), & Devatadhyaksha (temples). [5, 306]

Finally, last in mention but arguably most crucial in consideration of administration is the military and the police. Police stations, Aarakshaalayas, and Police officers were well-known in ancient times. Beyond personal body guard was the military of the state. Detailed discussion is more appropriately done in Dhanurveda. Nevertheless, Gangaputra provides insight into the imperatives of unit cohesion, military hierarchy, and succession.  He also tells of chiefs of 10, 100, and 1000 soldiers, ostensibly led by upa-nayakas, nayakas, and other such commanders.

Dharma Rajya

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xoan8v99oCI

There have been countless kingdoms throughout the history of Bharatavarsha. Where to begin and where to end? Rama Rajya is obviously the most famous. It was a Dharma Rajya not only because of Rama, but also because of the support structure that was there. Ram Raj was not built in a Day. Lakshmanas and Bharatas were required as loyal lieutenants. There were royal sages of great wisdom, and a dynasty of men and women dedicated to dharma.

But Sri Rama was the ideal ruler. The vast majority of rulers, governors, netas, and politicians are less than ideal. How did the dharmic state contend with this?

Checks & Balances

The root for word 'Raja' is 'ranj', to please. A Hindu King or Raja was one who had the inherent capability to please his citizens#Periyava

— Sage of Kanchi (@haraharasankara) July 30, 2017

A raja is rebuked if he does not attempt to please his subjects. But not all care to do so.

Much hay has often been made in recent times of the significance of checks & balances. While these are indeed essential aspects in any government, balance is of necessity even here.

Dharma is obviously the overarching restraint on the king, preventing him from devolving into autocracy or outright tyranny. Srotriyas well-versed in Dharma could publicly argue against blatantly adharmic policies, and there were other checks as well. Ministers were very outspoken. Though in recent times, self-serving sycophants have sought to use ‘ministerial guidance’ as a means to personal power, there were more appropriate mechanisms as well. Vidura famously resigned as minister from the court of Dhritarashtra. Collectively, a mantriparishad may, if required, oppose nominations for succession.

Then, there were the samitis. These popular assemblies date back to the Vedic Age and permitted the king to keep a pulse on popular opinion. [11, 87]

To bring things full circle are the all-encompassing ends of Dharma, Rta, & Satya. Society, the age-old divinely ordained way of Indian life, transcended the state and was independent of it. Bharatavarsha was known for the weak state, but strong society. The king’s function was the protection of society, and the state was merely an extension of the king for the furtherance of that end. [11, 88]

The Ramayana notes the following:

Where the land is kingless the cloud, lightning-wreathed and loud-voiced, gives no rain to the earth.

Where the land is kingless the son does not honour his father, nor the wife her husband.

Where the land is kingless men do no meet in assemblies, nor make lovely gardens and temples.

Where the land is kingless, the rich are unprotected, and shepherds and peasants sleep with bolted doors.

A river without water, a forest without grass, a herd of cattle without a herdsman, is the land without a king.[11, 85]

Nevertheless, there were some forms of government that were in fact Kingless.

Ganarajyas

It is common knowledge that various republican states existed in ancient India. But as usual, there is a set of simpletons who draw all the wrong lessons from history—and indeed—latch on to outright wrong history. Republics such as “Licchi-vika, Vrijjika, Mallaka, Madraka, Kukura” are some of the many that have come down to us. [12, 173] It has become fashionable to deprecate them, but only a truthful study of them will teach the correct lessons of itihaasa.

Those who understand real history know that Ajatashatru had a difficult time defeating republics. Contrary to the weakness of republics, there is an inner strength to them, as not only the Vrjjis demonstrated, but as Rome did as well. Ajatashatru, who preceded Chanakya, only managed to defeat them by bheda. As large polities they become unwieldy, as the city by the Tiber did during the era of Marius. Nevertheless, they also have the ability to inspire civic virtue not just in the elites, but also the population in general as well.

Diversion into political typologies merits a separate series of articles. With respect to the topic under consideration, however, here is the relevant takeaway:

“The most powerful non-monarchical state at this time was the Vrjjian confederacy, of which the chief element was the tribe of the Liccha-vis, and which long resisted the great Ajatasatru…the Licchavis had no less than 7707 rajas, a term which must have covered all the heads of families of the tribe who were eligible to take part in the tribal assembly. Jaina sources tell of an inner council of thirty-six tribal chieftains con-trolling the affairs of the Licchavis, Mallas and allied tribes in their war with Ajatasatru. The whole confederation had a raja-in-chief, an executive head who, like the raja of the Sakyas, seems to have held office for life” [11, 97]

Dandaniti

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScmcUlaVn18

Common to Ganarajyas, Rajyas, and Samrajyas alike is the concept of Crime & Punishment. Medieval Hindu law is expansive, and indeed, remarkably adaptive in adjusting not only governmental structures, but even Smriti to changing conditions and civilizational zeitgeists. Here are some interesting snippets in chronological order showing changes to well-known traditional rules.

“Manu lays down that as the penalty for theft the sudra should pay a fine equal to eight times the value of the stolen goods, while the vaisya, ksatriya and brahman should pay sixteen, thirty-two, and sixty-four times the value respectively. The upper classes were expected to follow high standards of conduct than the lower, and their thefts were corre-spondingly more heinous.” [11, 121]

“The Smrti of Katyayana allows the execution of a brahman for procuring abortion, the murder of a respectable woman, and the theft of gold, while the Arthasastra admits it for sedition. ” [11, 120]

Speaking of Arthasastra, law courts were well-developed in ancient India. Kautilya advises that a bench of 3 magistrates be set up for every mandala, with district and high courts atop them. The Ruler was the Final Arbiter, and would be the final appeal not only among direct provinces, but even among vassal Kings as well.

“The court of justice was called dharmasabhaa or dharmaasana. Members who tried cases were called dharma sabhaajanas or Sabhyas. The dharmaasana at Vijayanagar is alluded to in the Vaisyavamsasudhaarnava. In fact, this work is the nature of a judgment, drafted by Mallinaatha, the famous commentator on the dramas of Kaalidaasa and other Sanskrit classics, in a civil dispute regarding a communal question. “[ 7, 225]

There were well-developed rules of evidence, governmental judicial architectures, deputised arbitrators, and a variety of legal codes that could be applied.

“No doubt, the chief source of the law of the Hindus then, must have been the same as it it today, the Smritis or the codes of law by Yajnavalkya, Narada and others. Vijnaanesvara’s Mitaaksara on Yajnavalkya seems to have been the primary legal authority. Another legal treatise written in this period was the Paraasara Maadhaveeya. Its author is the celebrated sage Vidyaaranya, the spiritual teacher of the Vijayanagar kings, Harihara I and Bukka I .” [7, 225]

Dandaniti, was therefore a basic aspect of not only Paalana, but administration itself. Bheeshma himself stresses how good government in fact does bring out virtue in men.

In consequence again of royal protection, men can everywhere sleep fearlessly and at their case without shutting their houses and doors with bolts and bars. Nobody would hear the evil speeches of others, far less actual assaults, if the king did not righteously protect the earth. If the king exercises the duty of protection, women decked with ornament may fearlessly wander everywhere without male relatives to attend upon them. Men become righteous and without injuring serve one another because the king exercises the duty of protection [2, 149]

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YFUnB_YkMSM

 Public Works

The king should cause wide roads to be constructed and order shops, and places for the distribution of water, to be opened at proper stations. Depots (of diverse necessaries), arsenals, camps and quarters for soldiers, stations for the keeping of horses and elephants, encampments of soldiers, trenches, streets and bypaths, houses and gardens for retirement and pleasure, should be so ordered that their sites may not be known to others, O Yudhishthira [2, 153]

A mainstay of Rajadharma, and Yogakshema in particular, pertains to public works. The history of India is replete with a plethora of accounts on the energy with which Indian rulers and administrators developed their polities.

Indeed, the list is so long, that a separate discussion is merited. All this notwithstanding, a brief account is provided her for illustrative purposes.

Rajas and Ranis were respected for investing in the needs of the citizenry. Water is absolutely the sine qua non of life, let alone, civilised life. It is critical for any King (or political leader) to place great emphasis not only on digging wells and encouraging a culture of responsible water use, but also constructing large scale tanks (kushaya), wells (koopa),  and ponds (saras). The Vijayanagara Empire was known for its expertly constructed acquaducts. King Bhoja supplied his beautiful capital Dharavati through numerous lakes. Rudradaman’s chaste Sanskrit inscription was written on the Girnar dam.

Investment in ports, as well as their protection, was also a key aspect in promote commerce and industry. So too were highways. The Grand Trunk Road of North India was famous throughout the world and dates back to the Imperial Age of Magadha. Mauryas in general were legendary for their construction of highways, water infrastructure, and guesthouses. Finally, there is the matter of education.

Noted historian, K.A. Nilakantha Sastri provides an expansive discussion on how education was strongly supported by Kings in different ages:

“At Salatgi was another eminent college to which pupils came from different Janapadas (countries) and whose vidyaarthisangha was richly endowed in 945 by Naaraayana, the minister of Krishna III, with the revenues of houses, land, and levies on marriages and other ceremonies. We also hear (1058) of a ghatikaa at Naagai with ample provision for 200 Veda students, 50 students of the saastras, three teachers of the Vedas, and three teachers of the saastras—one each for Bhatta, Prabhaakara-meemaamsa and Nyaaya—besides a librarian who brings up the strength to 257 in all. At Ennaayiram in South Arcot the Chola Raajendra I endowed a large college of (1) 270 junior students of whom 40 studied the sootras of Bodhaayana, and the rest learnt the Vedas by rote; (2) 70 senior students, 10 studying vedaanta, 25 vyaakarana, the rest Prabhaakara-meemaamsa; and (3) a teaching staff of 14.

In another college, in the same neighbourhood at Tribhuvani, there were 260 students and 12 teachers. Full details have been preserved of the food and residence of the pupils of a smaller institution at Tirumukkoodal in which also gives equally interesting details about the stock of medicines maintained in a good sized hospital in the same place. A medical school at Tiruvaaduturai where the Ashraangahridaya and Caraka Samhitaa were taught, and a school for the study of Paanini’s grammar at Tiruvorriyoor, may also be noted. The study of Law and Astronomy found special encouragement from the Yaadavas of Devagiri. Education and learning continued to receive generous support from the Raayas of Vijayanagar and their numerous feudatories.” [13, 293]

Conclusion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rc8v5SfXP5g

Administration is fundamentally about placing the interests of the State before individual and even dynastic interests. The King exists for the people, not vice versa. Nandigram may mean something else in modern Bhaarat, but in Ancient Bhaarat it was the seat of Bharat’s government-in-absentia. Prince Bharata Dasarathi never considered himself the ruler of Ayodhya, but ruled in Sri Rama‘s name (as symbolised by the padukas). Thus, rather than a raja, he was styled as a regent, and so represents the values of administration.

Putting aside calls from ministers and royal sages to rule, Bharata considered implementation of Dharma to be the highest calling and did his utmost to restore the throne to Ram. Following the arbitration of Janaka, Bharata led the caretaker government for 14 years. So strict were his vows, that he not only followed Ram’s footsteps and became an ascetic, but he even refused to remain in Ayodhya so long as Ram was in exile, and established Nandigram just outside of it. Here we see example of Rajya not as Bhoga but as Thyaaga. Bharata is called the vairaagi anuraagi. Sentimental, yet detached, his fraternal love for Ram causes him to restore the royal rule of primogeniture & pave the way for the rule of Ram. In response, Bhagvan Ram himself is reputed to have said:

I should have known you’d reject in an instant what it takes men lifetimes to learn to refuse.

So for those asking, what is the value of principles of nyaay in a time of anyaay, here we have seen how the principles of Rajadharma not only led to dynastic and national harmony, but also ensured good administration. It is therefore paramount to not only understand it from the theoretical perspective, but also from the practical perspective of leaders, administrators, and regents such as Bheeshma.

So, to call all statecraft or politics the policy of Chanakya is inaccurate. It is this obsession with chanakyanism that has resulted in many armchair chanakyas to be unduly trusted by the actual rulers of society. In chasing “chanakyas”, kings were betrayed by purniahs. Contrary to poets-political neophyte, more than the field of battle, it was in the court of intrigue that the foreign occupation of India was decided. From the minister Chach who established the dynasty of Dahir ( married his sister) down to Purniah who served the usurper Hyder, installed Tipu, & helped the British, betrayal of native dynasties by their own officials had catastrophic ramifications to dharmic people of all classes. That is the paramountcy of proper study of correct history.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxBFNQJDi8E

Modern day mani shankar aiyars who threaten the pradhan mantri cannot seek puranic penumbra, let alone constitutional protection, should they commit treason. And beef-in-vedas advocates can no longer obscure the all-pervasive importance of Rajadharma even in a time without Rajas. The time, therefore, has come to rebut their dubious dharma upanyasas. They don’t even get the history right.

The over-hyped ruthlessness of Vishnugupta may be well & good, but most of these policies of Rajaniti can also be found with Vidura.

Furthermore, fundamentally ruthless strategy originates with Krishna, not Kautilya (who was a Krishna bhakt anyway).

It is, therefore, imperative to see Acharya Chanakya for what he really is, appreciate who he really was, and begin to separate the man from the myth. Kautilya was merely 1 in a spectrum of Acharyas and assorted commentators not only on Nitisastra, but on Arthasastra itself.

Much of the mythos constructed by motivated historians (colonial & otherwise) around Kautilya Vishnugupta was done with ulterior motives. As Pandit Kota Venkatachalam established, Chanakya had nothing to do with defeating Alexander’s Macedonian Greek successors. The British, and their desi sepoys, popularised the wrong Chandragupta.  Chanakya himself was not the originator of Arthasastra. The first one was compiled by Brihaspathi, and so-called “Chanakyan policies” such as the sama-dana-bheda-danda were obvious in Bheeshma’s instruction, as well as in the Vidura Niti (compiled from the Mahabharata).

Acharya Chanakya should be credited with compiling his eponymous Chanakya Niti & his own updated Arthasastra, which referred to and restated his predecessors. However, Kautilya did not defeat foreign invaders, but in fact hired them to help install Chandragupta Maurya (a relative of the Nandas) on the throne. Pandit Kota Venkatachalam, being a traditional Brahmin pandit, himself views the arrangement between Chanakya and Chandragupta as improper, and reductive of the king’s authority.

So who has been promoting this myth all these years? The popularisers of well-known british colonial flunkey purniah, perhaps.  This is the reason for the exhaustive discussion regarding who actually qualifies as a brahmana per the ancient standard. Where status becomes confused, laws become unjust, dharma is injured, people are exploited, and faith is lost in dharma itself. Blame in turn falls upon the innocent.

Tamilnadu Politicians often take the name of Thiruvalluvar and his Thirukkural, but conveniently ignore his injunctions on Raja Dharma.

— Sage of Kanchi (@haraharasankara) January 11, 2015

Professors, journalists, poets…these are not rishis—there are none born in the Kali Yuga. It is time people learn from real astika brahmanas like Pandit Kota Venkatachalam, and pity these poets-incompetent trying to playing pundit. These pretenders make pretence to being Krishna, like Paundraka did, and ultimately meet the latter’s fate.

Rajadharma, Rajaniti, Koota Niti, and Danda Niti are all practices of Kshatriyas (whether by birth or conduct).  In the modern era of democratic-republics and universal suffrage, much suffering can be avoided by studying the ideal of rights linked with duties being determinative of dharma. Poseurs who pretend to understand Rousseau’s discussion of virtue, forget that Bheeshma Pitamaha himself discussed the centrality of government’s chastisement (dandaniti) in promoting virtue. As Acharya Vishnusarman illustrated, the bakavrttin whose beak is ever fishing in someone else’s pond will always speak of ‘inner governance’ while practicing adharmic conduct. Inner governance is possible only in a population that values virtue. When virtue itself is in question, as Bheeshma advised, it is the duty of the government (however local & minute) to uphold and promote Dharma.

That is the value of Governance & Administration. Hyperbolic rhetoric and social media trivia are trivial pursuits that give the illusion of action without the performance of it. Dreamy discourses and popular polls on future monarchs or hindu theocracies may pique the interest of rebels-without-a-cause, but they ignore national need and the injunctions of Dharma itself. Leadership, democratic or otherwise, necessitates both sound understanding of theory and a proven track record of action in the public interest and in the dharmic interest. This applies to present-day politicians as well.

The king should administer justice like Yama and amass wealth like Kuvera. He should also be observant of the merits and defects of his own acquisitions and losses and of his own dominions. He should feed those that have not been fed, and enquire after those that have been fed. Possessed of sweet speech, he could speak with a smiling (and not with a sour) countenance. He should always wait upon those that are old in years and repress procrastination. He should never covet what belongs to others. He should firmly follow the behaviour of the righteous and, therefore, observe that behaviour carefully. [2, 117]

Many may make claim to the theorised throne of Bhaarat, but only he who is qualified in the Rajadharma of Administration will eventually come to govern.

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References:

1. The Ramayana. http://www.valmikiramayan.net/
2. The Mahabharata.Santi Parva. Rajanusasana Parva. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/
3. Aiyyangar, K.V. Rajadharma. Adyar Library. 1941
4. Arya, Ravi Prakash. Dhanurveda – The Vedic Military Science. Rohtak. Indian Foundation for Vedic Science. 2014
5. Rangarajan, L.N. Edit, Kautilya. The Arthashastra. New Delhi. Penguin.1992
6. Mitra, Rajendralala & Sisir Kumar Mitra. The Nitisara or The Elements of Polity.Kolkata: The Asiatic Society. 2008
7. Malampalli, Somasekhara Sarma. History of the Reddi Kingdoms.Delhi:Facsimile Publ. 2015
8. Rao, P.R. History and Culture of Andhra Pradesh: From the earliest times to 1991. Delhi: Sterling. 1994
9. Olivelle, Patrick. Dharmasutras. Delhi: MLBD.2013
10. Chaturvedi, B.K.Chanakya Neeti.Diamond: New Delhi.2015
11. Basham, A.L. The Wonder That Was India. New York: Grove Press, 1959
12. Sastri, Nilakantha K.A. Age of the Nandas & Mauryas. MLBD.1996
13. Sastri, K.A.Nilakantha. A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford. 2015