It has been many years since we touched on the topic of Ayurveda. There are a myriad roles and applications for this upaveda. It is so multi-faceted that we often forget that it goes beyond even the health of human beings. Vedic Dharma (and Sanatana Dharma by extension) value life in all its forms. Life is precious, whether as a human, or an animal, or even as a plant. All living beings should be treated well, and based on their role, utilised with the least-harm principle. If permitted animals are to be consumed by non-vegetarians, it should be with the least harm. Similarly, plants too, which are used by vegetarians, must also be consumed with the least harm. So great is this commitment to ahimsa, that the greatest yogis are said to subsist only on air and water.

That, of course, is too high a bar for most of us, but that is the beauty of the Ayurvedic tradition. It not only utilises plants for the health of human beings, but catalogues and specifies the good-treatment of plants so as to provide a near-symbiotic relationship. Contained within Ayurveda, therefore, is not only Pashyayurveda (for animals) but also Vrikshayurveda (for plants). That is the topic of today’s article.

Sidenote: Due to the voluminous nature of the Flora Catalogue, we have placed it at the bottom under the headline 'Appendix'.

Introduction

Originally, we envisioned this Post as combining both Vrkshaayurveda and Dravyaguna together. However, rather than separating botany from horticulture, we deemed the two to be more in sync with each other than with pharmacology, which is better treated in another one. Dravyaguna requires a greater amount of expertise or verification, and will necessitate more time and review. Medicine is the science of healing, but materia medica provides the resources for it. That is what makes today’s topic foundational.

Vrkshaayurveda is a multifarious field of study. This branch of Ayurveda is listed under the 64 Arts (Chatusshasti-kalaa). It is a field open to young and old, educated and layperson alike. It is mentioned in Sthapatya Veda and discussed at some length in Lokopakara. It is certainly dealt with in detail by the various Samhithas. However, the two most prominent works on it are the Surapala, and more anciently, the Parasara Vrkshayurveda.

Often called Plant Science (Vrksha Vijnaana), Vrkshaayurveda is in fact botany and horticulture, rolled into one. It is the ancillary of both Krshi Sastra as well as Dravyaguna. It provides a foundation from which humans can heal, plant, and harvest the assorted array of plants, shrubs, and trees that make civilised life possible for both the elite and the common.

“Vrikshayurveda is a systematic compilation that starts with the glorification and veneration of trees and tree planting. It is the most comprehensive and detailed treatise on plant life which various topics related to the science of plant life such as procuring, preserving, and treating seeds before planting; preparing pits for planting saplings; selection of soil; method of watering; nourishments and fertilizers; plant diseases and plant protection from internal and external diseases; layout of a garden; agricultural and horticultural wonders; groundwater resources” [2]

Terminology

• Sasya—Crop/Plant
• Sasyapaalana—Horticulture
• Sasyapaalaka—Horticulturist
• Udhyaanapaala—Gardener
• Udhyaana—Garden
• Vana—Forest
• Vanika—Small Garden/Grove
• Upavana—Pleasure Garden
• Vaata—Plantation
• Vaatika—Orchard
• Vrksha/Tharu/Kshithi/Dhruma—Tree
• Vanaspathi—Plants bearing fruits without flowers
• Vaanaspathya/Druma—Plants bearing fruits with flowers
• Latha—Creepers/Vines
• Gulma—Bushes & Shrubs
• Moola—Root
• Thoola—Shoot
• Kaanda—Stem
• Valsa—Twig
• Pushpa—Flower
• Phala—Fruit
• Saakhaa—Branch
• Parna—Leaf
• Khandha—Rhizome/Bulb
• Paatola/Twak —Bark
• Saara—Heartwood
• Svarasa—Sap
• Niryaasa—Exudation/Extract
• Sneha—Oleaginous matter
• Kantaka—Spine or Prickle
• Beeja—Seed
• Praroha—Seedling
• Nala—Reedy plants
• Vethra—Cane
• Trapusha—Cucumber
• Plaksha—Ficus
• Kumudha/Pankaja/Padma—Lotus

Philosophy

“When requested thus by the sages, Paraasara spoke (to the congregation): I shall narrate to you the Vrkshavaidyaka (Vrkshaayurveda) embodied in the Atharvaveda, and as revealed by Brahma, the creator [Verse 4]. The genesis of the plants, their nature and form as influenced by variation of land characteristics along with their care and treatment, and delineation of the essential features of the trees, shrubs, creepers, grasses, seasonal flowers (Rtu pushpa) and annual plants (Oshadhi) on the surface of the earth” [1, 3]

The fundamental philosophy behind Vrshaayurveda is living in harmony with nature. As opposed to the exploitative and almost parasitic relationship humanity has with the Earth today, this body of knowledge is based on a symbiotic approach. It is rooted (pun intended) in understanding that plant life too should be treated with a mindset of stewardship rather the vampirical-capitalist approach of the modern era.

The essence of Ayurveda and Vrkshaayurveda by extension is least harm. After all, the first exhortation to a physician is to do no harm. What is different here is that there is an attempt to extend that principle to plant life itself. Harvest the produce without destroying the plant. Cut down a tree without destroying the entire forest. Utilise the land without destroying the soil.

“Vrkshaayurveda which literally means ‘the science of plant life’ is known to have existed in ancient India as a special branch of knowledge. Clear references to the Vrkshaayurveda are met with in the Arthasaastra, the Brhatsamitaa, and in the Agnipuraana, each having a section devoted to this branch of knowledge, generally dealing with the Agricultural practices; rules for planting trees – their proper seasons, and specific location for aesthetic and hygienic improvements of the home-stead; as well as diseases of plants and their treatments.” [1, xiv]

Many vegetarians assert that vegetarianism is the highest dharma (the embodiment of ahimsa), but here is the Maharshi on the topic: “Plants have consciousness and are capable of feeling the sense of pleasure and pain (‘Sukhadukha samnwitah’). The best of the ‘twice born’ calls plants ‘Udbhijja’ because of their piercing upwords. [Verse 9]” [1, 4]

There has been some controversy of the existence of gardens in ancient India. This is a very mischievous notion, as mention of orchards and great gardens are replete throughout Sanskrit and Prakrit texts. These references are found not only scientific texts, but historical and poetic literature alike. “Further we come across a chapter entitled Upavana-Vinoda as a branch of the Vrkshaayurveda in the encyclopedia work compiled by Saarngdhaara (Saarngdhaara Paddhati, 13th cent. A.D.), which deals with construction and maintenance of gardens.” [1, xiv]

The Vedic tradition believes not only in the rights of human beings, but also the rights of animal and plant life. Though plants were harnessed and sometimes culled, this must be done with care and consideration:

“Thus the Rgveda* says that human habitation should not be allowed to tread on vegetation. And Manu (4.73) has prohib-ited stay or walk under the trees at night. Furthermore in a long discourse in Ch.177 of the Saantiparvan, Mahaabhaarata questions have been raised about the existence of life in plants which the sage Bhrgu tries to explain…Like the human body, the body of the plant is also made of five elements. The plants react when they are struck. The atoms making the body of the plants are closely struck but still there is some space in between the atoms, which enable them to assimilate the rays of the sun, rain and air causing the blossoming of the flowers, and bearing of fruits. The trees have the capacity to suck water through roots. Withering of trees, creepers, and of their foliage from excessive heat or from thunder show that they have both the power of feeling and hearing.” [1, viii]

The Paraasara Vrkshaayurveda, therefore, divides this field of study into 5 sections: Beejotpatthi-kaanda (seed), Vanaspatthi-kaanda (non-flowering), Vaanaspathya-kaanda (flowering), Gulmakshupa-kaanda (bushes & shrubs), Virudhavalli-kaanda (vines).

Maharshi Parasara is the famed father of Veda Vyasa (compiler of the Vedas, and spiritual patriarch of the Pandavas & Kauravas). His commentary runs the gamut from smrthi to krshi. It is therefore only natural that he feature in botany as well. If the Vishvavallabha of Chakrapani Mishra was a work of pure horticulture, the Vrkshaayurveda of Paraasara teaches not only how to harness plant life, but also how to care for it as well. Parsimoniously dated to the 3rd Century C.E., Puraanic Chronology would date it to the Dhvaapara Yuga. “Examination of the text makes it clear that the author of the text had profound and varied knowledge of the flora of ancient India.” [1, vii]

Horticulture

Horticulture is the science of crops and growing plants. It covers aspects of botany, agriculture, and gardening. Above all, it underscores the conditions in which plant life and produce grow best.

Soil

“The earth is variously termed as ‘Bhoo’, ‘Bhoomi’, ‘Mrtsnaa’, ‘Mrttikaa’, ‘Kshiti’, ‘Kshaunee’, ‘[V]asundharaa’, ‘Dharaa’, ‘Dharitree’, ‘Dharani’, ‘[V]asudhaa’ [Verse 2]”. [1, 9]

The earth (vasudha) is of course of pivotal importance. Even the best of seeds will find difficulty growing in barren soil. Classification of land is discussed at length not only by Charaka and Sushruta, but also Paraasara. “The present text also incorporates various terms that are found in the Amarkosa in relation to the character of soil like, Ushavaan (the soil is full of alkaline patches), Sarkarila (the land dominated by rock particle), Sikatila (the land domi-nated by sand), and Pankila (the land that remains muddy); and also various kinds of plant association like Swadwala (grass land), Nadwala (land dominated by reedy plants), Kumudwaan (land abounding in lotus) and Vetaswaan (land abounding in canes). [1, xx]

Parasaara fittingly authored a work on agriculture, and maintains his consistency with his work on horticulture. He divides land into Jaangala (sparse forest or desert), Anoopa (abounding in streams & lakes), and Misradesa (mix of the former two), and proceeds to list the plants that are native to each type in copious detail. [1, 9]

He then goes on to show his knowledge of geography mentioning the great forests from Kalinga to Malaya Parvata and Panchanadha to Dhaasaarnataka (in the South).  “Forests are connoted by different terms like ‘Atavee’, ‘Bipina’, ‘Gahana’, Kaanana’, Vana’, ‘Mahaaranya’, ‘Aranyaanee’, etc. [Verse 2]” [1, 15] “I will describe the forests located in the different kingdoms (Janapada) within the famous land Bhaaratkhanda (Land of India).” [1, 15]

Botany

“The knowledge they compiled about plant life and its longevity is in the form of a treatise known as Vrikshayurveda which was written way back in 1000 A.D. by Surpal. Some scholars suggest that this compilation of Vrikshayurveda dates back to 2^nd Century B.C.” [2]

Botany is the study of plants and their biology. “‘Druma’, ‘Kshitiruha’, ‘Saakhee’, ‘Vitapee’, ‘Paadapa’, ‘Taru’, ‘Anokaha’, ‘Kuttha’, and ‘Saala’ are all synonymous — denoting a plant [Verse 10]”. [1, 4] The classification of plants is done on the basis of ‘Ganas’. Note that the term used is Gana, not Jaathi (meaning genus, and misused in the human context).  Paraasara goes on to state that there will be a discussion of plant diseases (Chikitsitha Kaanda) based on aetiology (Kaaranam) and proper treatments (Saathmya beshajam). [1, 5]

“The text gives and exposition as to how the first living cell (Adi Beeja) came into existence. It states that water transforms itself into a jelly like substance (Kalalam) within which a dense organic mass (Pindasthaanukam) is formed which in course of time, being regulated (Vyuhan) by terrestrial energy (Vasunaa) is converted into germ cell (Beeja). This appears to be an elaboration of the view that is found in the Upanishadic texts.” [1, xix]

“The Garbhosaareeropanishad states basically the same process in a simpler way that water attains a colloidal state (Kalalibhoota) an subsequently becomes a dense organic mass (Pinda). In fact, the concept that life originates from water could be traced in some of the earlier Upanishads too, of which mention may be made of the Chaandogya Upanishad which holds that the living or non living all are just water solidified.” [1, xix-xx]

The fundamental unity of all living things emerges from this dharmic view of nature and the universe itself. It permeates with a sense of Rta. This is the meaning of living in harmony with nature. It is found not only specialty texts on horticulture but also in the foundational texts of the Vedic religion.

“The Atharvaveda is the earliest work which records some knowledge about the morphology of plants. The Taittiriya and the Vaajasaneyi Samitaas recognise different parts of a plant as Moola (root), Toola (shoot), Kaanda (stem), Valsa (twig), Pushpa (flower), Phala (fruit), Saakhaa (branch) and Parna (leaf). The Caraka and the Susruta Samita abound in various descriptive terms based upon the salient morphological traits of plants as their nomenclature.” [1, xvi]

The basics of botany are then supplemented by detailed lexicons and catalogues of flora.

“Naamalingaanusaasana of Amarasimha or the Amarkosa, a lexicographic work devel-oped in the 6th cent.A.D. abounds in sound botanical infor-mation. Finally, mention should be made of a class of Aayurveda literature, called Nighantus or lexicons (pharmacopoeas) belonging to the period from 8th to 16th cent. A.D. (like Dhanvatari Nighantu, Madanapala Nighantu, Bhava Paraasara, Raaja Nighantu etc.) which also record valuable information about plants.” [1, xvi]

Plant structure

Plant anatomy is called Vrkshaanga-soothreeya-adhyaaya. It is an essential portion of the subject. The Maharshi states the following: “Patra (Leaf), Pushpa (Flower), Phala (Fruit), Moola (Root), Twak (Bark), Kaanda (Stem), Saara (Hear-twood), Swarasa (Sap), Niryaasa (exudation), Sneha (Oleaginous matter), Kantaka (Spine or Prickle), Beeja (Seed), Praroha (Seedling), are the different parts of a plant Verse 3]” [1, 25]

Interestingly the world leaf itself has many synonyms. These include: Pathram, Parnam, Plaksham, Dhalam, Palaasam, Chadham and Barham. On top of this specificity is the consideration of young leaves, which are called Kisalaya or Pravaala. [1,26]

“The external parts of a leaf are enumer-ated as Vrntam (petiole), Paksha (lamina), Patra Siraa (leaf-vein), Maarhi (rachis), Vistaara (tendril) and Pattika (leaf-sheath).” [1, xxii]

Vrntham is the part that holds the leaf, flower, and fruit in space. When this part subdivides it is called the Upapaksham or winged petiole, and Vrntha bandhanam describes the arrangement of these petioles on the branches (phyllotaxy). [1, 27]

Most impressive, however, is the discussion of cellular structure. Here is the section from the Vrkshaayurveda of Paraasara:

“The leaf cells are the reservoirs of the fluid (Rasa). [Verse 27]. The cells are also called Asaya which means a receptacle. A leaf is made up of innumerable cells, each being surrounded by a membrance (Kalaa), containing the fluid constituted of the five elements of the Paanchabhautic guna. Cells are microscopic (Anavasca) and contain a kind of coloured substances (Ranjaka). The membrane of the cell is fine and transparent. It is derived out of the Kalalam (jelly like substance) as a result of the metabolic changes under the influence of the heat energy (Bhoothoshmaa). [Verse 28]” [1, 29]

Leaf types are delineated in truly exhaustive detail to describe here, but they demonstrate the depth of study and command of subject matter.

“The present text records a fair knowledge of the anatomy of the leaf. It is stated that there are innumerable cells in a leaf. They serve as a store house of the sap (Rasayasca Aadhaarasca) that has got all the elementary properties (Panchabhautic Guna) derived from the earth. Cells are microscopic (Anavasca) and contain a coloured substance (Ranjaka), and have cell wall (Kalaabestitena). The cell wall is fine (Sukshmapatrakaa) which originates out of a jelly like substance (Kalalam) under the influence of heat (Bhootosmaa). Such a description reminds us (Caraka’s observations of Krmies (worms) present in blood which states:…Krmies (worms) are found in  blood vessels (sthaanam Raktavaahinyo Dhamanyah), which are microscopic (anu), circular (Vrtta), without feet (Apaada), invisible on account of extreme fineness (Sukshmatwaaccaika Bhavantyadrsyah), of coppery colour (Varnastaamrah).* Observations in both of the above cases, create the impression that in those days there must have been some instrumental devices that made it possible to carry out such anatomical studies.” [1, xxxi]

Flower

Insight into the flower is also rather impressive. The Pushpaanga-soothreeya-adhyaaya is the chapter on this topic as well as the various organs: “Flowers the forerunner of fruits. Pushpam, Kusumam, Prasoonam, Sumanam are the synonyms of a flower.” [1, 51]

“The terms related to the floral parts mentioned in this text, that are traditionally known too are Vallari (inflorescence), Vrnta (pedicel), Dala (corolla), Kesara (stamens) Paraaga (pollen), Kinjalka (anther); while some terms which appear in this text with an extended sense are Jaalaka for the calyx ( the organ which cover the flower bud—vide text) and Varaataka, the style. In the traditional literature the term Jaalaka refers to the flower bud (Raajanighantu) while the Varaataka means a seed vessel (Amarakosa).” [1, xxiii]

Flower types are described as Kukshi pushpa, Kaanda pushpa, and Vallari pushpa. The first grow in singles or in clusters at the axis. The second cluster at the stem. The third grow at the stem terminal. [1, 59] All types are then subdivided into fertile (saphala) and infertile (nisphala). Those that bloom at night under the power of the moon are called Chandrakaantha pushpa, while those of the day are called Ravikaantha pushpa. [1, 59] Seasonals are Rtu pushpa and annuals are Sadhaa pushpa. [1, 60]

Fruit

Fruit is also delineated in variegated detail. Different types are listed as well as their uses.

“Paraasara said: I will now narrate the Phalaangasootreeyaadhyaaya, the chapter dealing with fruits. [Verse 1]. Synonyms for fruit: Phalam, Beejaadhaara, Beejaputaka are synonymous.” [1, 75] Based on their characteristics, fruits are then classified as Pushpakraantha, Pushpaseeshaka and Samvrtha. The first has the ovary placed in the floral cavity and is typified by legumes. It may have a single seed or many. The second finds the organ placed in other floral members as with Pomegranate (Dhaadhima), and have many seeds.  The final one is chambered,a gain with may seeds.

The Phalaangaani or Parts of a Fruit are as follows: Vrntha (Peduncle/Pedicel), Jaalaka (Calyx), Valkam (Fruit wall), Salaatu (unripe portion), Vartaka (Locule), Beejapuplika (Septum), Beejapusha (Placenta) and Beeja (Seed).” [1, 76] The potions are then described in further specifics. For example the fruit wall can be mrdhula (soft), maalura (hard & brittle), angsuka (fibrous), sookaachitham (covered with hairs), kantaka (covered with spines), keelaka (covered with short points), and arvudha (irregularly shaped). The spare the reader further agitation, we will refrain from comprehensive reprint here and move on. Nevertheless, the depth of understanding is once again admirable. [1, 76]

If all this weren’t enough, plants are categorised by shape. These are as follows: Phalgu (round, hollow), Kumbha (pitcher shaped), Tripusha (3 placentals), Jaalinee (net-like), Bhasthra (leather air blower), Srngee (horn-shaped), Tulinee (cotton-like), Triputha (3 chambered), Vrnthaaka (eggplant/pedicel attached to calyx), Guccha (common pedicel), Gucchadantika (row of teeth like), Kesaraka (hair-like outgrowths), Kosha (many chambered on thalamus), Sanku (knife-shaped), Smee (lateral rowed seeds), Beejaka (fruit & seed alike). [1, 81] These all are then divided by the standard shadruchi framework.

Plant Growth

Root (moola) is described as the life-spring (jeevanaayanam) of the plant. Four root types are described. These are Kaastika (woody core), Kaandhika (fleshy root), Granthika (knotty root), and Prathaanika (vine-like root). [1, 90-91]

The vascular system of a plant is an extension of this and is called Tvak-gana-soothreeya.

“Paraasara said: Bark of different trees varies variously. Accordingly it is called ‘Angsuka’. ‘Patraka’, ‘Paatala’, ‘Saara’, ‘Mrdula’, ‘Khara’ and ‘Kaantika’ [Verse 16]“. Angsuka is thread-like, Patraka is papery, Paatala is layered, Saaranganeeya is rich and bamboo-like, Mrdhula is sappy and soft, khara is rough, and kantaka is thorny. [1, 92]

Finally, Saakhaa are the branches and are discussed at length. Their instrumentality in the development of produce is mentioned. They rise from the trunk and develop around the axis.  The exudation of a damaged branch or stem or leaf is called Niryaasa. Sometimes this may be frothy (Phena) or slimy (Saandhra). To protect itself, the plant develops thorns (kantaka), which can be Rju (straight), vakra (crooked), or kuta (peak-pointed). [1, 98]

Methods of encouraging growth and stimulating seedlings are also discussed. “It may be pointed out here, that these methods have also been known in India from the very early times. The process of stem cutting (kandhabeejam) is found mentioned in the Arthasaastra and the Brhat Samitaa. The method of propagation by rhizomes or bulbs (Kandabeejam) has been referred to in the Arthasaastra. Further we get in Sumangalavilaasini (a commentary on the Deegha Nikaaya) by Buddha Ghosha (9th cent. A.D.) descrip-tion of various cutting methods as Mula-beejam (by root seeds), Khandabeeja (cutting), Phalu-beeja (by joints), Agra-beega (budding) etc.” [1, xxvii]

Seeds

“Paraasara said: In this chapter of ‘Dwiganeeyadhyaaya’ I will delineate the subject on seeds and seedlings. A seed is the cause of perpetuating the continuity of plant kingdom. The inherent nature of a seed is to pierce upwards and sprout [Verse 1-2]” [1, 103]

The seed is an ingenious pod of nature. Contained within is the full potential of a plant from germination to dessication. Seed parts are as follows: Kheekosa (seed coat), Beejamaathrkaa (kernal), Beejapathra (internal leaf), & Maathrkachhadha (sometimes synonymous with leaf). Praroha ganeeya (sprouting) is then discussed. The seed itself originates in a jelly (colloidal agglomeration called ‘pindam’), then the sprout from a seed striking root, then the root into the stem, then stem into branches, then branches into flowers, and flowers into fruit. [1, 108]

“The sap which is now a finer product nourishes the entire parts of the seedling. Consequently a seedling becomes a full fledged plant in due course. (‘Kaala parinaamaatt sarvaangena paripoornam bhavati’) [Verse 18]”. [1, 106]

5 types of shoots are the basis for this process. These are beejaankur, pathraankur, kaandaankur, kandhaankur, and moolaankur. The first is that which germinates from a seed, the second is that from a leaf, the third is that from stem-cutting, the fourth is that from a tuber, and fifth is that which comes from a root. [1, 107]

“The text records a rudimentary concept relating to the transporting system (Sarvasrotaamsi) inside the plant. Of these, one that carries the Rasa (watery substances) from the soil to the different plant parts is called Syandanee, and the one that circulates the fluid both in the inward and outward directions is called Siraa. Thus the plant receives nourishment, and growth becomes possible. ” [1, xxxi]

Plant Classification

Plant classification offers the basic lens from which the physician or naturopath may navigate the field of botany. These are generally standard in the Classical Indic tradition, but sometimes have variation.

“Vrikshayurveda divides plants into four types namely Vanaspati (those that bear fruits without flowers), Druma (those that bear fruits with flowers), Lata (creepers), and Gulma (Bushes). They grow from seed, stalk, or bulb.” [2]

Another categorisation is as follow:

“An almost similar classification is available in the Caraka and Susruta Samhitaas where the four groups are recognised as Vanaspati-trees which bear fruits but not flowers; Vanaspatya (Vrksa in the Susruta Samhitaa)-trees which bear both flowers and fruits; Virudhas-creepers, and Oshaadhi—herbs that wither away after ripening of fruits (cf.Annuals). “[1, xxviii]

Vanaspathi

Vanaspathi plants bear fruits without flowers. Maharshi Paraasara notes that it is sometimes thought the flowers are invisible (guda) but otherwise are not considered to exist.

Some plants of this order are Vata (Banyan), Paarisa (Ficus arnottiana), Panasa (Jackfruit), and Audhambara (Fig). [1, 116]

Grasses (thrna) are classified under this order. Other plants here include Dhaanya (Oryza sativa), Yava (hordeum vulgare/barley), Godhuma (wheat), Syamaa (Echinochloa frumentacea), Kakodrava (Paspalum scrobuculatum), and Bajjira (Pennisetum amerecanum), Bansa (Bambusa sp), and Ikshu (sugarcane).

Bulbs are dividend into 2 types. These are Kandha prarohikaa and Kuksyaankurikaa. Examples of this include Haridraa (turmeric) and Palaandu (onion).[1, 128]

Interestingly, there is a group called Pancha Ksheera Vrksha (a group of five plants that exude latex) which are “Vata (Ficus bengalensis), Udumvara (F.racemosa), Aswattha (F.religiosa), Parisa (F.arnottiana) and Plaksha (F.talboti) as found in the Madanapaala Nighantu.” [1, xxx]

Vaanaspathya

These plants have visible flowers and also bear fruits. Aamra (mango) is the most famous example. These fruits are seeded and the flowers are small.

Vaanaspathya plants are divided into Chootha pushpa gana (which have hypogynous flowers), Puplika pushpa gana (which have spines & are aromatic), Deva pushpa gana (polypetalous & epigynous), Aksha puspa gana (which have astringent taste), Kuha pushpa gana (which have pricles on stems), and Mallikaa pushpa gana (have petioles arranged like a wheel).

Virudha

Paraasara himself diverges from the standard template, and rather than focus on creepers (virudha) he describes leguminous plants (sami-vrksha), bushes & shrubs (gulma), valli (vines) all at length and too voluminous to describe here in this introductory article.

Elsewhere, one will then find creepers followed by oshadhi (herbs).

Oshadhi

Oshadhi is  related to the word aushadham (medicine), proving that the foundation of medicine is in fact in herbs.

Herbal medicine provides the basis for local healing, which need not be done by quacks, but rather by naturopaths. Indeed, this is how vrkshaayurveda feeds into dravyaguna. Various healing concoctions and decoctions are discussed in books such as the Lokopakaara.

Plant Treatment

Treatment of plants is, appropriately enough, similar to treatment of humans. The theory is at its core based on Tridosha. This concept ensures a balance amidst the elemental basis of all matter (the Pancha Mahabhoothas).

“Surprisingly Vrikshayurveda suggests the techniques as to how and when to transplant the trees without causing any damage. Like human beings, plants which are hailed as souls, have three types of diseases, viz, Vata, Kapha and Pitta. A complete cause and treatment of the diseases have been given in detail. One of the problems of modern agriculture and forestry is damage caused by insects, worms and frost. It gives a comprehensive and detailed way to save our plantation from these problems. ” [2]

The Lokopakaara not only gives a detailed description of plant transplantation, but discusses grafting as well.

“17. Transplantation of various types of plants is done as follows:

The well-grown trees have to be transplanted in winter (Mrigasira-Pusya or December-January); that with fruits in the rainy season (Sravana-Bhadrapada or August-September) and youn trees in the post-winter (Magha-Phalguna or February-March). The plants transplanted as above grow vigorously in an astongishing manner...” [6, 24]

“22. A method of grafting is as follows

Take two different species of boughs or seeds. Cleave and join them again. Anoint honey and ghee to the grafted bough or the seed and plant the same immediately. When this grafted plant is well grown, it will have a different root bough and fruit bough.” [6, 25]

Important Texts

Vrkshaayurveda of Paraasara

Vrkshaayurveda of Surapaala

Dhanvanthari Nigantu

Brhath Samhitha of Varaahamihira

Lokopakaara of Chavundaraaya

Maanasollaasa

Agni Puraana

Arthasaastra

Brhath Samitha

Conclusion

Vrkshaayurveda in general and that of Maharshi Paraasara in particular, is proof of the ponderous knowledge of our ancestors. Rather than a matter of mere pride, it should be seen as a responsibility to accurately preserve, pass on, and put to use such knowledge for the benefit of posterity.

The term naturopathy is often treated with derision in this era of pharmaceutical corporates. The reality, however, is that fundamental medicine has always been rooted in plants and natural produce. Botanicals and animal products have long been the basis of Naturopathy, and form the core of Dravyaguna (natural pharmacology). The body has the capacity to heal itself for basic ailments and can be spurred on through proper diet, but botanicals and other sources of the Earth’s bounty can be combined to provide aushadham (medicine) that is available to the common man.

This is the heritage of Bhaarathavarsha, but for the benefit of humankind. High Culture in general and saastric knowledge in particular is not for mere poseur pontification. It must be guarded against wrong-doers but put to use once more not just for the well-being of human beings, but all living beings and the planet itself. The philosophy of Vrkshaayurveda is one of stewardship. Take what you need, and nothing more. Treat plants not as inanimate objects but as the living entities that they are, with care and gratitude for their bounty.

“If we see the population of the world, we can categorise them into two categories, viz, vegetarians, that is, those people who primarily eat plant-based diets and non-vegetarians who eat creatures who in turn eat plants. So, in both cases, the health of human beings is exclusively dependent on the health of plant life! This fact and law of nature were well recognised by the ancient Indian observers which were further given shape by Surpal.” [2]

It is true, that even great munis living on air cannot help but accidentally inhale itinerant insects (though Jain munis try hard here), so what can we laypersons possibly do to become completely harmless? We cannot, but vrkshaayurveda teaches us to reduce the harm, take what plants and produce we can, but leave untouched what need not be troubled. This is the attitude that maanava jaathi must regain once more, not only in the making of medicines (the ultimate purpose of this topic), but in our existence on Bhoodevi.

example of Data Mining by the British in India. Book on Indian medicinal plants 1810. Very rare copy @RajivMessage pic.twitter.com/gWKXfZTi5k

— Inquisitiv_indian (@Inquisitive_Ind) January 5, 2015

Appendix

From Brhath Samhitha of Varaahamihira (p.145)

Flora Catalogue

• Arjuna—The tree terminalia
• Arka—The plant Calotropis Gigantea
• Asana—Pterocarpus Bilobus
• Asoka—Koesia Asoka. It is a tree of moderate size of leguminous class with red flowers
• Aswakarna—Vatica Robusta
• Aswattha—The holy fig tree; ficus religiosa
• Atasi—Common flax
• Athimukthaka—Mountain ebony
• Badhari—Jujube tree
• Bandhujeeva—Pentapetes Phaenicea
• Bhallatha—Marking nut plant, Cashewnut plant
• Champaka—Michelia Champaka
• Chiribilva—A tree, Dalbergia Arborea
• Dhurva—Bent grass, panic grass Panicum Dactylon
• Hasthikarna—Castor oil tree
• Inguda—Medicinal tree (Terminalia Catappa)
• Jambu—Rose Apple Tree, Eugneia Jambolana
• Kalama—White rice from deep waters; sown in May/June & ripens in December/January
• Kangu—Panic seed; Panicum Italicum
• Kapittha—Feronia Elphantum
• Kaarpaasa—Cotton
• Khadhira—Acacia Catechu, tree having hard wood
• Kodrava—Grain eaten by the poor, Paspalum Scrobiculatum
• Kovidara—The tree Baubinia Veriegata
• Ksheerika—Fig tree
• Kulutha—A kind of pulse
• Kumkuma—Plant & Pollen of flower Crocus Sativus
• Kunda—Cassia
• Kuravaka—Crimson Amaranth
• Kusa—Poa Cunosuroides
• Kusumbha—Safflower, Carthamus Tinctorius
• Kutaja—Jasmine variety
• Madhuka—Bassia Latifolia
• Mudga—Kidney-bean Phaceolus Radiatus/Phaceolus Mungo
• Naga—Small tree with fragrant blossoms, Mesua Roxburgha
• Nandhikavartha—Nerium Coronarium plant
• Nichula—Hijjal tree, Barringtonia Acutangula
• Nyagrodha—Indian fig tree
• Palasa—Butea Frondosa
• Panduka—Rice species
• Paarijaatha—Shurb Nictanthes Tristis
• Patala—Trumpet flower tree
• Peelu—Tree, Dillenia Speciosa
• Punchimadha—Nimbu Tree
• Punnaga—Rottleria Tinctoria, plants with blossoms used for yellow dye
• Sala—The Sal tree (Diospyros Ebenaster), furnishing timber
• Sami—Acacia Suma, possessing hard, fiery wood
• Sana—Hemp, Cannabis Sativa
• Sapthaparna—Meaning Seven-leaves, Tree Alstonia/Echites Scholaris
• Sarshapa—Mustard seed
• Shastika—Rice variety ripening within 60 days
• Sindhuvara—Tree Vitex Negundo
• Sireesha—Acacia Sirisa
• Saugandhika—Blue Lotus
• Sukara—Rice variety
• Suvarnapushpa—Golden or Globe Amaranth
• Syaamalatha—Medicinal plant, country Sarsaparilla (Periploca Indica)
• Tilaka—Tree variety with beautiful
• Tinduka—Tree Diospyros Embryopteres
• Vetasa—The Rata; calaus Rotang
• Yava—Barley

Gardening

• Amrataka—Hog-plum
• Anjana/Kalanajana—Small shrub used as purgative
• Ankola—Known as Woodoga or Akola, it has aromatic roots and edible fruit
• Apamaarga—Plant used as medicine or washing detergent
• Arista—Soap berry tree
• Arka—name of large plant
• Asmantaka—Plant often used for yajnopaveetha
• Atibala—Custard apple. Medicinal plant
• Badaree—Jujube tree
• Beejapura—Citron variety
• Bhallatha—Markingnut plant
• Bilva—Bell tree. Wood apple
• Chathra—Type of grass
• Dhaadhima—Pomegranate
• Danthee—Croton plant. Called Konda/Hakoose. Used as purgative
• Dhava—Grislea plant. Known as Sirinjie
• Garudavega—plant
• Guduchi—Twining shrub. Called Tippatingay
• Gundra—Grass variety
• Ibha—Ibhakesara
• Indrataru—Devataru tree
• Jambu—Nareddoo/Jamoon creeper, with edible fruit
• Jyothismathee—Heart pea
• Kadamba—Tree with orange flowers.Rudrakshakamba/Cuddum
• Kakodumbarika—Fig tree variety
• Kakubha—Type of Arjuna tree
• Kampilla—unverified
• Kantarika—Known as Vankula/Koothaya
• Kappittha—Woodapple. Known as Velaga/Khoet with edible fruit
• Karanja—Kooyoo/Kurung with unequally pined leaves
• Karavalli—unverified
• Karavira-Asafoetida plant
• Karira—Cluster of Shooting Bamboo
• Karnikara—Tree type
• Kasa—Type of grass. Called Relloogaddy/Kagara
• Kataka—Clearing Nut plant
• Khadira—Acacia tree
• Kovidara—Sona plant with edible vegetable buds
• Krimiripu—Vergmifugal shrub
• Kshura—Palleroo plant
• Kula—Ebony plant
• Kuranka—Crimson Amaranth
• Kusa—Sacred grass
• Lakshumana—Oshadi plant
• Likucha—Type of breadfruit tree
• Madayantika—Arabian jasmine
• Madhuka—Ippa/Mohe oil
• Madhupuspa—Mahwah tree, called Ipie
• Madhuyasti/Ikshvaku—Sugarcane
• Mashaparna—leguminous shrub
• Mokshaka—Tree species
• Mounjaka—Blade of Munja grass
• Mridvika—Bunch of grapes
• Mulaka—Radish/Esculent root
• Maarvaa—Creeper for bowstrings and Yagnopaveetha
• Mustaa—Type of grass
• Naga—Vasuntagunda/Camul
• Naktamala—Dalbergia tree
• Nala—Fragrant substance/perfume/red arsenic
• Navamalika—Jasmine/Boondoomall
• Neepa—Kadamba tree/Rudrakshakamba
• Nirgundi—Negundo plant, called Wagala/Nisinda
• Nyagrodha—Indian fig tree
• Oosira—Frant root of Andropogon plant
• Padma—Lotus or other fragrant plant. Yerratamaray
• Palasa—Butea tree, called Moduga/Palas or Bastard teak
• Palasini—Species of climbing plant
• Palivata—Tree type
• Panasa—Jackfruit tree
• Parushaka—Called Parusha in Bengali
• Peelu—Called Ghoonia in Telugu
• Pindara—Species of tree, called Conrew
• Plaksha—Holy fig tree
• Punnaga—Blossoms used for yellow dye
• Rajakosataka—Fruit type
• Rambha—Plantain
• Saka—Sirisha tree. Pot herb
• Sami—Acacia tree type
• Sapthaparna—Alstonia tree. Planks used as Schoolboards
• Sariba—Sarsaparilla. Called Sugandhi
• Sarja—Sal tree
• Satapatra—Lotus
• Simsapa—Dalbergia tree
• Sindhuvara—Negundo shrub
• Sirisha—Sirissa tree. Called Dirisana
• Sisumari—Nauclea plant
• Siva—Sami tree. Yellow Myrobolan
• Somalata—Moon plant
• Sonaka—Bignonia tree. Soft spongy timber treats ulcsers. Called Pampena/Shyona
• Sreeparni—Premna tree. Flint plant, called Tagoomooda
• Sukarapadee—Sakara moss
• Sukarika—Another type of moss
• Suryavalli—Gynandropsis plant
• Suvarna—Thorn apple tree
• Syaama—Sarsaparilla substitute
• Thala—Palmyra or fan palm. Called Tady/Talgacch. Used for toddy
• Thilak—Redwood tree. Called Bandi-gooroo vindza/Koochunduna
• Thimira—An aquatic plant
• Tinduka—Glutinosa plant
• Trivrtha—Creeper medicinal plant
• Udumbara—Country fig tree. Called Maydi/Gooler
• Usheera—Fragrant root of Andropogon plant. Called Cassavoo
• Vakula—Tree type
• Vanira—Cane or Ratang type.
• Vanjula—Asoka tree type
• Varahi—Bulbous plant with esculent root or yam
• Varuna—Evasia plant
• Vasika—Adhatoda plant
• Vata—Banyan tree/Indian fig tree
• Veerana—Fragrant grass, called Cooroovayroo/Useer
• Vethasa—Rattan cane. Called Bettam/Beta. Grows 500 ft
• Vibhithaka—Belerica tree. Called taondee/tady. Medicinal. Grows 100 ft
• Vidanga—Erycibe plant. Medicinal vermifuge
• Vidaaree—Hedysarum plant. Climbing plant
• Virudhi—Spreading creep
• Vyaghrapada—Flacourtia plant

Perfumery

• Agaru—Amyris Agallocha
• Ambu—Plant Andropogon Schoenanthus
• Anjana—Antimony
• Arag-vadha—Tree Cathartocarpus Fistula
• Ashvagandha—Plant Physalis Flexuosa
• Chora—Perfume from plant Chrysopogon Aciculatus
• Damanaka—Artemisia Indica
• Dhana—Plant Alhagi Maurorum
• Dhanyaka—Coriander
• Drava—Myrrh
• Ghana—Root of plant Syperus Hexastychus Communis
• Gokshuraka—Plant Asteracantha LongifoliaGuda—Bdellium
• Harithaki—Fruit of Terminalia Chebula
• Hinguraka—Prickly Nightshade (Solanum Jacquini)
• Ikshuraka—Asteracantha Longifolia
• Jatamsamsi—Plant Nardostachis Jatamamsi
• Kapikacchu—Plant Mucuna Pruritus
• Katika—Fragrant Grass Trichosanthes Dioeca
• Kesa—Plant Andrapogon Schochanthus
• Kesara—Mimusops Elengi
• Kodrava—Gram variety, Paspalum Scrobiculatum
• Kunduruka—Resin of plant Boswellia Thurfera
• Kushtha—Medicinal plant Costus Speciosus or Arabicus
• Kusthumburi—Coriander seeds
• Lavaliphala—Fruit of Averrhoa Acida
• Lodhra—Tree Symplocos Racemosa (bark used for dyeing)
• Makshika-dhaathu—Pyrites (honey-colored mineral substance)
• Malaya—Sandalwood
• Manjishtha—Bengal madder
• Mrga—Musk
• Mudhra—Cyperus Rotundus
• Musta—Species of grass, Cyperus Rotundus
• Naagapushpa—Mesua Roxburghi
• Nakha—Vegetable Perfume
• Nalika—Fragrant substance
• Nata—Seed of the Cassia Tora
• Paarijaatha—Nutmeg
• Pathya—Citron Terminalia Chebula
• Pathra—Leaf of the Cassia
• Priyangu—Medicinal plant & perfume
• Renu—Medicinal substance that is fragrant, bitter, pungent, and grey
• Sahakara—Fragrant Mango tree
• Sailaka—Bitumen
• Sarja—Resin of Sal tree
• Sarkara—Grit
• Sathapushpa—Dill or fennel variety, Anethum Sowa
• Sita—Grit
• Sprikka—Plant Trigonella Corniculta
• Sree—Turpentine
• Sikshmaila—Small Cardamom
• Sikthi—Perfume with likeness of dried shell fish
• Tagara—Seed of Cassia Tora
• Takkola—Tree Pimenta Acris
• Triphala—3 myrobalans. Fruits of Terminalia Chebula/Bellerica & Phyllanthus Emblica
• Turushka—Species of Indian Incense, Kunduruka Olibanum. Resin of Boswellia Serrata
• Ucchatha—Root of Cyperus Juncifol
• Usira—Fragrant root of plant Andropogon Muricatus
• Uthpala—Plant Costus Speciosus
• Vala—Fragrant grass, Andropgon Shoemanthus
• Valuka—Species of Cucumber
• Vidanga—Erycibe Paniculata
• Vyaaghranaakha—Tiger claw. Medicinal Herb with fragrant root.

From Kaashyapeeya-krshi-sookthi

• Aadhaka—Pigeonpea
• Aaradhraka/Shunthi—Ginger
• Agastya—unverified
• Asvattha—Peepal
• Bhadradaru—Long-leaved Pine
• Bhurja—Indian Birch
• Chaladala—Bo tree
• Champaka—Champac
• Chmpeyaka—Ironwood
• Chanaka—Chickpea
• Chuta/Rasala—Mango
• Devadaru—Deodar
• Granjan—Shallot
• Kanisha—Corn/Maize
• Kavaka—Mushroom
• Khadira—Catechu
• Kramuka/Puga—Areca Nut
• Rambha-Kadhalee—Plantain
• Dhraaksha/Rasaka—Grape
• Rasalaka—Indian Frankincense
• Rathadruma/Tinisha—Sandan
• Sapthaparna—Dita Bark Tree
• Sarkaja—White Damar
• Saravtobhadra—Malay Bush-beech
• Shavaka—French Tamarisk
• Sindhuvara—China Chaste Tree
• Suragandha—Sappanwood
• Tapiccha—Kokam Butter Tree
• Tinduka—Coromandel Ebony
• Tintrini—Tamarind
• Thulasi—Sacred Basil
• Valli—False Pareira Root
• Vamsha—Thorny Bamboo
• Veta—Cane
• Yavara—Sorghum

References:

1. Sircar, N.N. & Roma Sarkar (Editors). Vrksayurveda of Parasara (A Treatise on Plant Science). Delhi: Indian Book Centre. 2020
2. Mehra, Geetanjali. “Vrikshayurveda — The Ancient Indian Science of Plant Life”. News 18. https://www.news18.com/news/opinion/vrikshayurveda-the-ancient-indian-science-of-plant-life-5061877.html (accessed July 31, 2023)
3. Iyer, N.C. The Brihat Samhita. Sri Satguru Publications: Delhi.1987
4. Ayachit, S.M. KashyapiyaKrishiSukti. Secunderabad: Asia Agri-History Foundation. 2002
5. Sadhale, Nalini & Y.L.Nene. Vishvavallabha.  Secunderabad. Agri-History Foundation. 2004
6. Ayangarya, Valmiki Sreenivasa. Lokopakara (For the Benefit of People). Asian Agri-History Foundation. Secunderabad. 2006